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in  2015 


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Residence  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  O.  T.  McKay,  at  West 
Medford,  Mass.  Wm.  Y.  Peters,  Architect. 

A simple  modern  treatment  of  the  Colonial,  retaining 
some  of  the  interesting  crudeness  of  the  parent  style. 


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Illustrated  by  KK30DERH0LTZ 
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NEW  YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  AND  COMPANY 


THE  COUNTRY  HOUSE 

A Practical  Manual  of  the  Planning  and 
Construction  of  the  American  Country  Home 
and  its  Surroundings. 

^Written  by  CHAS.EDW HOOPER PO 


Copyright,  1904,  1905,  by 
Doubleday,  Page  & Company 
Published,  December,  1905 


All  rights  reserved , 

including  that  of  translation  into  foreign  languages , 
including  the  Scandinavian 


THE  WORLD’S  WORK  PRESS,  NEW  YORK 


To  the  home-building  public, 
with  the  hope  that  it  will  be  of  some 
practical  value  to  its  readers. 


$ 


REFACE  <t«q 


'T  is  said  that  a man  must  needs  build  three 
houses  before  he  will  have  one  to  suit  him.  It 
is  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  forewarn  him  of  some 
of  the  actual  difficulties,  that  he  may  avoid  the 
aforesaid  expensive  preliminaries,  and  to  suggest 
such  various  points  as  are  apt  to  escape  his  notice 
in  the  scheming  and  laying  out  of  the  country  house. 

In  preparing  this  work  the  author  is  indebted 
to  many  men  of  professional  standing  who  have 
kindly  offered  their  help  and  suggestions,  to  the 
many  owners  who  have  allowed  their  houses  to  be  photographed,  and  to  the  following 
works,  which  may  well  he  consulted  by  the  reader  if  he  should  desire  to  investigate 
the  subject  more  deeply: 

“Building  Superintendence,”  by  T.  M.  Clark;  “Building  Construction  and 
Superintendence,”  by  F.  E.  Kidder;  “Construction  Details,”  by  F.  W.  Chandler; 
“ Details  of  Building  Construction,”  by  Clarence  A.  Martin ; “A  Dictionary  of  Archi- 
tecture and  Building,”  by  Russell  Sturgis;  “The  Decoration  of  Houses,”  by  Edith 
Wharton  and  Ogden  Codman,  Jr.;  “American  Sanitary  Plumbing,”  by  James  J. 
Eawler;  “ Plumbing  Simplified,”  by  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard,  C.E.;  “ Hot-Water  Heating, 
Steam  and  Gas  Fitting,”  by  James  J.  Lawler;  “Heating  and  Ventilation  of  Resi- 
dences,” by  James  R.  Willett;  “An  Outline  of  Ventilation  and  Warming,”  by  James 
Baldwin;  “ Principles  of  Ventilation  and  Heating,”  by  John  Shaw  Billings;  “ Heating 
and  Ventilating  Buildings,”  by  Prof.  R.  C.  Carpenter;  “The  Disposal  of  Sewerage 
of  Isolated  Country  Houses,”  by  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard,  C.E.;  “House  Drainage  and 
Water  Service,”  by  James  C.  Bayles;  “Water  and  Water  Supply,”  by  W.  N.  Corfield, 
M.D.;  “Sinking  and  Boring  Wells,”  by  Ernest  Spon;  “Water  Supply  Engineering,” 
by  A.  Prescott  Folwell;  “Modern  Methods  of  Sewerage  Disposal,”  by  Geo.  E. 
Waring,  Jr.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.;  “Munns’  Practical  Land  Drainer”;  “The  Private 
Stable,”  by  J.  A.  Garland;  “ Povdtry  and  Pigeons,”  by  Hugh  Piper;  “European  and 
Japanese  Gardens,”  published  by  Coates;  The  Architectural  Review;  The  Brochure 
Series  of  Architectural  Illustrations  ; Country  Life  in  America. 

The  author  is  further  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  E.  Soderholtz  for  his  collaboration  in 
the  procuring  and  selecting  of  photographic  material,  as  well  as  for  many  valuable 
suggestions.  His  expertness  in  photography  and  understanding  of  architecture  have 
served  this  volume  well. 

It  is  regretted  that,  in  some  instances,  it  has  been  so  extremely  difficult  to 
discover  the  architects  and  owners  of  certain 'examples  that  the  author  has  been 
obliged  to  omit  the  credit  which  would  otherwise  have  been  given. 


Chapter  I. — Selection  of  the  Site 

Business  centre  (5) — Sources  of  supply — Privacy — Public 
nuisances  (6) — Soil  (8) — Water  supply  and  drainage  (10) 
— Natural  possibilities  (n)— Purchase  (12) — Title  and 
deed — Style  and  site  (13) — Practical  example  (15;. 


Chapter  II. — Planning  the  House  ....... 

Client  and  architect  (22)— Rough  sketches  (25)— Rules  of  planning  (26)— Practical 
example  (32). 

Chapter  III. — Construction  of  the  Shell  . 

Soil  (42) — Laying  out — Foundation  (43) — Concreting  (45) — Underpinning — Piers 
(46) — Braced  frame  (47) — Balloon  frame  (49) — Floor  timbers  (51) — Partitions  (52) 
—Roof  (54) — Boarding  (55) — Floors  (56) — Brick  walls  (57) — Stone  walls — Lathing 
(58)—  Plastering  (59). 


Chapter  IV. — Details  of  Finish  ....... 

Cornices  (61) — Gutters  (64) — Conductors — Roof  shingle  (65) — Slate — Tile  (66) — 
Flashing  (68) — Outside  finish  (70) — Stucco — Brick  (72) — Window  and  door  openings 
(73) — Stonework  (74) — Piazza  (75) — Steps— Interior  details  (76) — Painting  (78) — 
Hardware  (79). 

Chapter  V. — Doors  and  Doorways  ....... 

Early  treatment  (81) — Colonial  (86) — Hardware  (88) — Types  (89) — Construction, 
etc.  (93). 

Chapter  VI. — Windows  and  Window  Motives  . 

Early  treatment  (100) — Location,  size,  etc.  (101) — Types  (105) — Hangings  and 
shades  (107 — Fittings  (108) — Construction  (112). 


Chapter  VII. — Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing 

Early  treatment  (1  r 7) — Wooden  mantels — Embellishment  (120) — Accessories  (122) 
— Construction  (124) — Fireproofing,  etc.  (127) — Fire  escapes  (133). 

Chapter  VIII. — Halls  and  Stairways  ....... 

Early  treatment  (136) — The  American  problem  (138) — Rise  and  tread  (141) — Style 
and  treatment  (141) — Furnishings  and  embellishments  (145) — Construction  (146). 

xi 


PAGE 

3 


22 


42 


61 


80 


100 


117 


136 


CONTENTS — Continued. 


xii 

Chapter  IX. — Living  and  Other  Rooms  ...... 

Drawing  room  (150) — Reception  room — Library  (152) — Smoking  room  (154) — 
“Den”  (155) — Billiard  room  (156) — Morning  room  (157) — Salon  (158) — Ball- 
room— Music  room  (161) — Bedchamber  (162) — Boudoir — Dressing  room  (165). 

Chapter  X. — The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen  and  thf.ir  Relations 
Early  treatment  (166) — Banquet  hall  (167) — Breakfast  room  (168) — Dining  room 
(169) — Furniture  (1 7 1) — Kitchen  (172) — Practical  example  (179). 

Chapter  XI. — Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting  . 

Adaptation  (183) — Natural  heat  (184) — The  fireplace — The  stove  (185) — The 
furnace  (186) — Direct  radiation  (189) — Indirect  radiation — Direct-indirect  radiation 
(190) — Systems  of  steam  and  hot  water  (191) — Ventilation  (193)— Inlet  and  outlet 
locations  (194) — General  principles  (195)— Example  (198) — Lighting  (201). 

Chapter  XII. — Plumbing  ........ 

Service  (205) — Tank-supply  system  (207) — Hot-water  boiler  (208) — Pipes  (210)— 
Cocks  (213) — Pump  (214) — Tanks  (217) — Lavatory — Sink  (219) — Tubs  (220)— 
Shower  bath — Closets  (221) — Wastes — Traps  (222)  -Back-vent  system  (224)  — 
The  simple  system  (225) — Tests  (227). 

Chapter  XIII. — Water  Supply  and  Drainage  . 

Problems  (228) — Water  (229)  Wells  (230)  Springs— --Storage  (236)— The  “ram” 
(241) — Pumps  (242) — “Under”  and  “deep”  drainage  (243) — Sewerage  (244)— 
The  cesspool  (445) — Sub-soil  system  (247) — Garbage  (249). 

Chapter  XIV. — Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 

Stables  (250) — Barns  (255) — Poultry  houses  (257) — Pigeon  houses  (260) — Automobile 
houses — Ice  houses  (261) — Boat  houses  (263) — Bath  houses  (264) — Swimming 
(266) — Gate  lodges  (267) — Fences  (268) — Gateways  (270). 

Chapter  XV. — Gardens  and  Their  Accessories  . . . . 

First  considerations  (273) — Formal  gardens  (275) — House  and  garden  (277) — 
Flowers  (278) — Pergola  (281) — Arbour  and  trellises  (282) — Summer  houses,  fences 
and  walls  (283) — Steps  (284) — Seats  (285) — Fountains  (280)  - Sun  dials,  statuary  and 
garden  pots  (287) — Urns,  free  columns,  Herma;  and  lanterns  (288) — Bridges  and 
gates — Old  models  (289). 

Chapter  XVI. — Contract  and  Specifications  . . . . . 

Remarks  (299)— Form  of  contract  (300) — Remarks  (303) — Form  of  specifications 
(303) — Masonry  (304) — Carpentry  (306) — Metal  work  (311) — Painting  (312) — 
Plumbing  (3x3). 

Chapter  XVII.— Practical  Hints  ....... 

This  chapter  is  arranged  alphabetically. 


PACE 

149 


166 


i83 


205 


228 


250 


273 


299 


318 


LLUoTRATIONijV^np 


Old  door-knocker  from  Goldsboro,  Me. 

Pool  and  Casino  at  the  Falkner  Farm,  Brookline,  Mass. 
Charles  H.  Platt,  architect  .... 

House  at  Bronxville,  N.  Y. 

Residence  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  O.  T.  McKay 
Old  Nichols’s  doorway  and  gates  at  Salem,  Mass. 

Porch  in  the  style  of  French  half-timber  work 
A modern  hallway  ...... 

An  Italian  jar  ....... 

House  on  the  “North  Shore,”  Mass. 

Facing  Chapter  I. — Entrance  Gates  to  “Maxwell  Court” 


. Cover  inlay. 

. Front  lining 

Half  title 
. Frontispiece 

. T itle  page 

. Dedication 

. . Preface 

Contents 
List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 

. . . 2 


Heading,  Chapter  I. — The  Maine  hill  country  .....  3 

A California  avenue  of  palms  ........  4 

The  old  Royal  House,  Medford,  Mass.  .......  5 

A bit  of  the  Berkshire  Hills  .........  7 

A summer  cottage  at  Boothbay,  Me.  .......  9 

The  lodge  at  “Yaddo,”  Saratoga  ........  10 

An  estate  on  the  Hudson  River  . . . . . . . .11 

Looking  across  Newfound  Lake,  N.  H.  ......  12 

The  Orchard  House,  Concord,  Mass.  .......  13 

A site  in  Roxbury,  Mass.  .........  14 

A California  vineyard  ..........  14 

xiii 


XIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued. 


PAGE 

On  the  Penobscot  River,  Me.  . . . . . . .15 

A site  on  the  Hudson  River.  A practical  example  . . . . 16  & 17 

A hill  site  in  Dutchess  County,  N.  Y.  . . . . . .18 

View  of  Frenchman’s  Bay  . . . . . . . . .19 

Old  birch  growth  on  the  Maine  coast  .......  20 

Heading.  Chapter  II. — A $12,000  house  of  field  stone  ....  22 

House  at  Osterville,  Mass.  .........  23 

Brick  and  stucco  house  at  Manchester,  Mass.  .....  24 

An  excellent  adaptation  of  English  and  French  half-timber  work  . . 25 

Log  and  stone  house  at  Bar  Harbor,  Me.  ......  26 

Residence  of  E.  S.  Hand,  Esq.,  Southport,  Conn.  .....  27 

Stucco  house  in  the  English  influence  .......  28 

An  excellent  example  of  English  design  . . . . . 29 

Plan  of  the  practical  example  on  the  Maine  coast  .....  30 

Plan  and  views  of  the  site  on  the  Maine  coast  . . . . • 31 

Stucco  house  at  Glen  Ridge,  N.  J.  . . . . . . .32 

Another  view  of  the  Glen  Ridge  house  .......  33 

A Most  interesting  stone  house  ........  34 

The  Old  Royal  House,  Medford,  Mass.  ......  35 

A stucco  house  at  Cohassett,  Ma  ss 36 

Entrance  side  of  Cohassett  house  ........  37 

A gambrel-roofed  Colonial  house  ........  3^ 

An  eight-room  gardener’s  cottage  ........  40 

House  of  General  Harrison  Gray  Otis  .......  41 

Heading,  Chapter  III. — A modern  Colonial  house  ....  42 

Fig.  1. — Showing  the  use  of  batter-boards  ......  43 

House  at  Lawrence  Park  .........  43 

Fig.  2. — Sections  showing  wood  and  brick  construction  ...  45 

Central  motive  of  the  Hammond  House  ......  46 

Fig.  3. — Braced  framing  .........  47 

Fig.  4. — Balloon  framing  .........  48 

Showing  rough  stucco  walls  ...  ......  49 

“Maxwell  Court,”  Rockville,  Conn.  .......  5° 

Fig.  5. — Section  through  frame  of  house  . . . . . • 51 

A simple  cottage  ...........  52 

House  at  Bronxville,  N.  Y.  . . . . • • • -53 

Showing  a rough-stone  and  shingle  combination  .....  54 

Portion  of  old  Whipple  House  . . . . . . . -55 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  — Continued. 


XV 


PAGE 

House  at  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass.  ........  56 

“Foregate,”  the  summer  home  of  Mrs.  Gordon  Price  ....  57 


“Eastover,”  at  Wyoming,  N.  J.  . . . . . . .58 

A modern  development  of  the  Colonial  .......  59 

A simple  New  York  State  type  ........  59 

Court  side  of  Royal  House  .........  60 


Heading,  Chapter  IV. — A mission  house 
Fig.  6. — Sections  of  wooden  cornices 
Portion  of  house  near  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

“Maxwell  Court”  .... 

Entrance  motive  to  house  in  Swampscott,  Mass 
Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Peterboro,  N.  H. 
Entrance  to  a brick  house 

Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Locust  Valley,  L.  I. 
Living  side  of  house  at  Kingston,  N.  Y. 

Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Philadelphia 
Servants’  quarters  of  house  at  Newburgh 
Portion  of  house  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 

Fig.  7. — Portion  of  chimney  . 

Showing  difference  between  pine  and  cedar  shingles 
Fig.  8. — The  square  window 
Entrance  to  “Belle  Aire” 

Fig.  9. — Several  types  of  stone  wall 
Fig.  10. — A portion  of  brick  or  stone  gable 
Three  chimneys  adapted  to  the  English  style 
Showing  an  open  cornice,  etc. 

Page  from  modern  hardware  catalogue 
Old  music  gallery  at  Alexandria,  etc. 


61 

62 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 
66 

67 

68 
69 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

76 

77 


Heading,  Chapter  V. — Old  Dutch  door  ......  80 

Old  doorway  on  Washington  Street,  Boston  . . . . . .81 

Doorway  of  old  Custom-house,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  . . .82 

Doorway  to  Hammond  House  ........  83 

Doorway  on  the  lines  of  the  Renaissance  ......  84 

Doorway  in  the  Chase  House  ........  85 

An  adaptation  of  the  Japanese  ........  86 

The  old  Longfellow  doonvay  . . . . . . . .87 

Street  entrance  to  Royal  House  ........  88 

Courtyard  entrance  to  Royal  House  .......  89 


XVI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATION S — Continued. 


PAGE 

Interior  doorway  at  Gunston  Hall  ........  9° 

Interior  doorway  at  Whitehall,  Md.  . . . . . . .91 

Fig.  11. — Diagram  showing  parts  of  an  ordinary  panel  door  ...  92 

Doorway  of  Hammond  House  ........  93 

Fig.  12. — Old  and  new  methods  of  door  construction  ....  93 

Vestibule  door  at  Alexandria,  Va.  .......  94 

Doorway  at  old  Whitehall,  Md.  ........  95 

Old  doorway  at  Deerfield,  Mass.  ........  96 

Fig.  13. — Fine  example  of  Colonial  architraves  .....  96 

An  interior  doorway  ..........  97 

An  unusual  door-hood  . .........  98 

Fig.  14. — The  veneered  door  ........  98 

A modern  doorway  at  Arlington,  Mass.  .......  99 

Heading,  Chapter  VI. — A modern  treatment  of  the  circular  bay  . . 100 

French  window  motive  . . . . . . . . . .101 

Modern  Colonial  bays  . . . . . . . . . .102 

House  at  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass.  . . . . . . . .102 

An  example  of  the  English  casement  window  . . . . . .103 

Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  . . . . .104 

Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Lynn  Mass.  ......  105 

Mullioned  window  in  old  house  at  Flushing,  L.  I.  . . . .106 

Interior  of  (above)  window  .........  107 

Fig.  15. — One  method  of  building  the  casing  ......  107 

Old  church  window  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  . . . . . .108 

Fig.  16. — Plan  of  three-opening  mullioned  window  .....  108 

Portion  of  house  at  Wayne,  Pa.  ........  109 

A semicircular  bay  ..........  109 

Excellent  glass  motives  . . . . . . . . .110 

Window  in  old  Bowne  House  . . . . . .111 

A second-story  bay  . . . . . . . . . .112 

A bay  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  . . . . . . . .112 

Fig.  17. — Section  of  a simple  window  frame  . . . . . .113 

Fig.  18. — Section  of  a window  in  a brick  wall  . . . . .114 

Fig.  19. — Showing  the  construction  of  a “ French  ” window  . . .114 

Entrance  motive  to  the  Emerton  House  . . . . . . .115 

Fig.  20. — Showing  the  construction  of  a cellar  window  . . . .116 

Heading,  Chapter  VII. — In  the  Peabody  Institute  . . . .117 

Hooded  fireplace  in  studio  . . . . . . . . .118 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued.  xvii 

PAGE 

Fig.  21. — Showing  the  use  of  the  old  fire  frame  . . . .119 

A delightful  example  of  delicate  detail  . . . . . . .119 

Mantel  in  the  Nichols  House,  Salem,  Mass.  ......  120 

A modern  hooded  Gothic  example  ........  121 

A library  alcove  at  Chestnut  Hill  ........  123 

Fig.  22. — Showing  a safe  method  of  chimney  and  fireplace  construction  . 124 

An  interesting  dining-room  fireplace  . . . . . .125 

Parlour  mantel  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  ......  126 

Old  mantel  from  the  Lee  House  ........  127 

A well-tied  fireplace  motive  .........  128 

An  old  Salem  mantel  ..........  129 

Fig.  23. — Showing  a fireproof  staircase  .......  130 

Old  fireplace  and  accessories  . . . . . . . 13 1 

A most  excellent  rendering  .........  132 

Mantel  at  Fairhaven,  Mass.  ........  133 

Fig.  24. — Showing  an  effective  form  of  fire  escape  .....  134 

Fireplace  in  a Bohemian  cottage  . . . . . . . .134 

An  American  development  of  the  English  Renaissance  ....  135 

A simple,  big  and  home-like  treatment  .......  135 

“Indian  Harbor,”  Greenwich,  Conn.  .......  135 

Heading,  Chapter  VIII. — A simple  and  well-lighted  hall  . . . 136 

An  upper  stair-landing  ..........  137 

Old  Colonial  stairs  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  ......  138 

Landing  (of  above)  ..........  139 

A Japanese  rendering  at  Fall  River,  Mass.  ......  140 

Upper  hallway  (of  above)  .........  141 

A modern  hall  at  Hingham,  Mass.  .......  142 

An  example  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  ........  143 

A simple  staircase  . . . . . . . . . .143 

Old  stairway  at  Carters  Grove,  Va.  .......  144 

An  Elizabethan  treatment  .........  145 

An  old  staircase  at  Alexandria,  Va.  .......  146 

A modern  hall  at  Williamstown,  Mass.  .......  147 

Fig.  25. — Showing  the  construction  of  stairs  ......  148 

Heading,  Chapter  IX. — Den  in  house  at  Overbrook,  Pa.  . . . 149 

Living  hall  at  Bayville,  L.  I.  ........  150 

A. billiard  room  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  .......  15° 

A general  living  room  at  Cohasset,  Mass.  . . . . . .151 


PAGE 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued 


Showing  musical  instruments  . . . . . . . . .151 

Parlour  in  the  style  of  Louis  XV.  and  XVI.  . . . . . .153 

Living  room  at  Fall  River,  Mass.  . . . . . . 155 

“Den”  in  house  at  Salem,  Mass.  . . . . . . . .156 

Parlour  at  Salem,  Mass.  . . . . . . . . 157 

Living  room  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  . . . . . . . .158 

Billiard  room  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  . . . . . . .158 

An  informal  general  living  room  . . . . . . . .159 

Reception  room  of  Messrs.  Price  and  McLanahan  . . . . .160 

Library  at  Montclair,  N.  J.  . . . . . . . . . 162 

Corner  in  library  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.  . . . . . . 162 

A simple  chamber  ..........  163 

A chamber  alcove  ..........  163 

Dressing  room  at  Cohasset,  Mass.  ........  164 

An  unusual  “den”  at  Osterville,  Mass.  .......  165 


Heading,  Chapter  X. — A winter  dining  room  .....  166 

A dining  room  at  Montclair,  N.  J.  .......  167 

Dining  room  at  Wenonah,  N.  J.  . . . . . . . 168 

An  old-time  kitchen  . . . . . . . . . .168 

A dining  room  at  Bronxville,  N.  Y.  . . . . . . .169 

A simple  dining  room  at  Magnolia,  Mass.  . . . . . .170 

Fig.  26. — Showing  an  isolated  kitchen  . . . . . . .171 

I he  wainscoting  and  the  ceiling  are  noticeable  . . „ . .171 

Dining  room  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  . . . . - . .172 

Dining  room  at  Winchester,  Mass.  . . . - . . 1 73 

A dining  room  at  Montclair,  N.  J.  . . . . . . .174 

A fine,  simple  design  . . . . . . . . . .174 

A kitchen  corner  . . . ...  . . . . . 1 75 

Fig.  27.— Section  through  a kitchen  sink  . . . . . .175 

Everything  is  simple  and  to  the  point  . . . . . . .176 

Fig.  28.— Section  through  draught  box  . . . . . . .176 

This  shows  the  exposure  of  the  kitchen  utensils  . . . . .177 

A light  and  convenient  kitchen  . . . . . . . .178 

A kitchen  dresser  . . . . . . . . . .178 

The  feeling  of  simple  comfort  . . . . . . . .179 

Fig.  29. — Section  through  dresser  . . . . . . • J79 

Fig.  30. — Plan  showing  a good  outlay  .......  180 

Fig.  31. — Detail  of  a revolving  service  box  . . . . . .180 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  — Continued. 


XIX 


PAGE 

Kitchen  and  dining-room  suite  . . , . . . . .181 

House  at  Woodmere,  L.  I.  . . . . . . . . 182 

Heading,  Chapter  XI. — A fireplace  of  stone  .....  183 

Sun  parlour  in  Japanese  house  ........  184 

A New  England  sun  parlour  ........  185 

Hanging  vestibule  lantern  . . . . . . . . .185 

A fireplace  in  Colonial  kitchen  ........  186 

Old  mantle  in  the  Ladd  House  ........  187 

A hall  fireplace  at  Wynnewood,  Pa.  .......  188 

An  adaptation  from  the  Japanese  ........  189 

Fig.  32. — Section  showing  indirect  system  . . . . . .190 

Fig.  33. — Section  showing  direct-indirect  system  .....  190 

A glazed-tile  mantel  ..........  191 

A parlour  mantel  at  Lynn,  Mass.  ........  192 

A parlour  mantel  at  Salem,  Mass.  ........  193 

A dressing-room  mantel  . . . . . . . . .194 

A good  fireplace  of  tile  . . . . . . . . .195 

The  screen  of  this  unique  bracket  lamp  ......  196 

Exterior  bracket  lantern  .........  196 

Mantel  in  living  room  ..........  197 

Plans  and  section  showing  ventilation  and  heating  .....  199 

Hanging  electrolier  ..........  200 

A hanging  electric  lantern  .........  202 

Electric  sconces  ...........  203 

Electric  table  lamps  ..........  204 

Heading,  Chapter  XII. — Portion  of  a small  bathroom  ....  205 

Fig.  34. — Section  showing  the  plumbing  of  a house  .....  206 

Fig.  35. — Section  through  hot-water  boiler  ......  207 

A kitchen  range  with  suspended  hot-water  boiler  .....  208 

A large  soapstone  kitchen  sink  ........  209 

An  elaborate  structure  of  brick  and  stone  . . . . . .211 

A summer  house  . . . . . . . . .211 

An  excellent  example  of  shingle  work  . . . . . . .211 

Example  of  popular  adaptation  . . . . . . . .211 

End  of  a first-story  laundry  . . . . . . . . .212 

A laundry  stove  . . . . . . . . . . .213 

A good  example  of  modern  bathroom  .......  214 

Fig.  36. — Showing  two  types  of  pumps  . . . . . . .214 


XX 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued 


PAGE 

Portion  of  a bathroom  . . . . . . . . . .215 

A double  lavatory  . . . . . . . . . .216 

A simple  porcelain  lavatory  . . . . . . . . .21 7 

Fig.  37. — Horizontal  section  of  a wooden  tank  . . . . .217 

Portion  of  a small  bathroom  . . . . . . . . .218 

Tin-lined  copper  sink  . . . . . . . . . .219 

Fig.  38. — Section  of  basin  .........  220 

Fig.  39. — Section  of  a modern  syphon  closet  . . . . . .221 

Fig.  40. — Section  showing  trap  forms  .......  223 

Fig.  41. — Types  of  the  non-syphoning  trap  ......  223 

A shower  bath  ...........  224 

Fig.  42. — Section  showing  the  installation  of  the  back-vent  system  . . 225 

An  enamelled  kitchen  sink  .........  226 

House  at  Merion,  Pa.  . . . . . . . . .227 

Heading,  Chapter  XIII. — Nearly  concealed  by  cedars  ....  228 

Detail  of  rustic  well  ..........  230 

A rustic-well  house  . . . . . . . . . .231 

Fig.  43. — Sectional  diagram  showing  a well  ......  2 32 

Windmill  on  farm  of  I homas  W.  Lawson,  Esq.  .....  233 

The  hacienda  of  Mrs.  Hearst  ........  235 

The  outlay  best  fitted  to  sand  stretches  .......  235 

The  Girard  Foster  House,  at  Lenox,  Mass.  ......  237 

Inner  court  of  house  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.  ......  237 

Cottage  at  Grindstone  Neck,  Winter  Harbor,  Me.  .....  237 

Elizabethan  house  of  Allen  H.  Reed,  Esq.  ......  237 

Supply  tank  and  lookout  .........  238 

Door  to  tank  house  (above)  .........  239 

Water  tank  of  Mrs.  Hearst  .........  240 

Fig.  44. — Section  of  hydraulic  ram  .......  240 

Old  powder  house  ..........  241 

A water  tower  at  Roxbury,  Mass.  ........  241 

Fig.  45. — Blind  and  combination  drains  .......  243 

A tank  at  West  Hampton  Beach  ........  244 

Tank  and  windmill  at  Southport,  L.  I.  . . . . . • • 245 

Hiding  an  iron  standpipe  .........  246 

A windmill  that  is  not  unsightly  ........  247 

Fig.  46. — Showing  the  flush  tank  ........  248 

Windmill  and  tank  combined  ........  249 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued  xxi 

PAGE 

Heading,  Chapter  XIV. — A modern  Colonial  stable  ....  250 

Fig.  47. — Plan  of  stable  . . . . . . . . .251 

Stable  at  Overbrook,  Pa.  .........  252 

Stable  at  Dedham,  Mass.  .........  253 

Stall  room  of  stable  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  ......  254 

Barn  and  poultry  house  .........  254 

Stable  on  the  D.  C.  Blair  estate  ........  255 

Fig.  48. — A good  stable  or  barn  vent  .......  256 

Fig.  49. — Section  through  a barn  ........  256 

Two  views  of  barn  at  “Fairacres”  .......  257 

The  Thomas  W.  Lawson  dove-cote  ......  258 

The  most  approved  form  of  poultry  house  ......  259 

Fig.  50. — A poultry  house  .........  259 

Old  dove-cote  at  “Shirley”  .........  260 

Fig.  51. — Small  pigeon  house  .......  261 

Pigeon  house  in  stable  . . . . . . . . . ,261 

A clean,  rich,  free  treatment  .........  262 

Stable  at  Woodmere,  L.  I.  . . . . . . • • 262 

An  ideal  barn  and  courtyard  .........  262 

Old  Colonial  gates  at  Salem,  Mass  .......  263 

Fig.  52. — Sketch  for  a combined  boat  and  bath  house  ....  264 

A dignified  treatment  of  the  entrance  wall  ......  265 

Boat  house  at  Southport,  L.  I.  . . . . . . . . 266 

Fig.  53. — Plan  and  section  of  a swimming  pool  .....  266 

Gate  lodge  at  “Pine  Banks”  ........  267 

Ice  house  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.  ........  267 

Old  gates  at  Medford,  Mass.  ........  268 

Fig.  54. — Sections  of  picket  fence  and  stone  wall  .....  268 

An  English  lich-gate  .........  269 

Garden  gate  of  Royal  House  .......  269 

Gate-lodge  at  Lawrence  Park  ........  270 

An  interesting  circular  barn  and  stable  .......  271 

The  summer  house  of  the  Royal  estate  .......  272 

Heading,  Chapter  XV. — A pergola  .......  273 

The  Blair  garden  ...........  274 

Plan  of  Blair  garden  274 

Garden  of  Mrs.  D.  C.  Blair  .........  275 

Japanese' fountain  ..........  275 


XXII 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued 


Garden  steps 

Garden  wall  at  Greenwich,  Conn. 

Pergola  and  sun-dial 

Garden  gate  at  Glen  Ridge,  N.  J. 

Hermes 

“Maxwell  Court,”  Rockville,  Conn. 

A vase  at  “Maxwell  Court” 

Wall  of  entrance  court 

“Maxwell  Court.”  The  garden  gate 

A side  porch 

Old  Prince  House  at  Flushing,  L.  I. 

A rustic  summer  house  . 

1 he  garden  at  Mt.  Vernon 
The  Italian  well-curb 
“Maxwell  Court.”  Pergola 
Sun-dial  in  cedar  garden 
A vista  in  the  Stevens5  garden 
Seat  in  the  Stevens’  garden 
An  ivy-covered  stone  bridge 

O * • • • • 

A rough-stone  bridge 
Stone  steps  in  formal  garden 
Garden  of  JVlrs.  Larz  Anderson 
Plan  of  the  Anderson  garden 
Fountain  in  garden  at  “Fairacres” 

A bit  of  the  rock  garden  at  “Yaddo” 

A modest  gate 

Bit  of  garden  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 

Rock  garden,  “Yaddo” 

Heading,  Chapter  XVI.— An  interesting  rendering 
A shingled  house  . 

An  eighteenth  century  Dutch  stone  house 
A children’s  playhouse 
Wyanhoe,”  James  River,  Virginia 
A modern  type  of  American  country  house 
I he  Goddard  House  at  Brookline,  Mass 

Heading,  Chapter  XVII. — House  at  Bronxville,  N.  Y. 

.6-  55-~ Section  and  plan  of  balcony 
Flg‘  56.— Sketch  showing  construction  of  a bulkhead 


PAGE 
. 276 
. 277 

* 277 
. 278 
. 278 

• 279 
280 

. 28l 

. 28l 

. 283 

. 284 

. 285 
. 285 
. 286 
. 287 
. 288 
289 
289 
. 290 
. 290 
291 

• 292 

• 293 

• 294 

- 295 

. 296 

. 297 

. 298 

• 299 

' 315 
. 316 

• 3l6 

• 3j6 

• 3l6 

• 3*7 

• 318 

• 3r9 

• 3W 


LIST  OF  ILLU  STRATION  S — Continued 

xxiii 

PAGE 

Fig.  57 . — Section  through  wall  and  drain 

. 320 

Fig.  58.—  An  outside  closet  ...... 

. 320 

Fig.  59. — Section  of  bed  of  drive  ..... 

. 321 

An  inexpensive  flower  trellis  ...... 

. 322 

Fig.  60. — Section  of  casing  ...... 

• 323 

Fig.  61. — Showing  the  right-angle  triangle 

• 325 

Fig.  62. — A bay  window  ...... 

• 325 

Fig.  63. — Showing  the  laying  of  shingles  .... 

. 326 

Fig.  64. — Suggestion  for  a trap  ..... 

• 327 

Fig.  65. — The  queen-post  truss  ..... 

. 328 

End  of  a simple  arbour  ...... 

. 329 

Section  of  bridge  ....... 

• 33° 

Mantel  at  Kingston,  N.  Y. 

• 33 1 

A typical  Southern  Colonial  house  .... 

Author’s  thumb-mark  and  signature  in  decoration 

Colophon 

Pergola  at  “Indian  Harbor,”  Greenwich,  Conn.  Carrere 

& 

Hastings, 

architects  ....  ... 

• 

End  linings 

THE,  COUNTRY  HOUSE. 


Entrance  Gates  to  “ Maxwell  Court,”  Rockville,  Conn.  Charles  A.  Platt.  Architect 


THE  COUNTRY  HOUSE  I 


.r 


5- 


CHAPTER  I 
Selection  of  the  Site 


NCE  the  was  very  young,  and  our  prehistoric  ancestry  (if 

the  Darwinian  theory  be  accepted)  roosted  in  trees,  or  swung 
therefrom  by  appendages  long  since  eliminated  and  hence  not 
found  in  the  accepted  Parisian  fashion  plates.  Then  there 
were  neither  doors  nor  windows,  and  the  needs  of  the  bath  were 
not  imperative.  Gentle  breezes  blew  as  aimlessly  as  now;  heavy 
foliage  offered  shelter  from  the  sun;  hair  grew  downward  to  keep 
out  the  weather,  and  the  lee  side  of  a tree  trunk  was  better  than  a house. 

Eater  came  the  cave  man — he  who  invented  the  cellar.  He  had 
no  tail,  but  just  what  he  may  have  been  is  not  definitely  decided.  Recent 
research  seems  to  suggest  that  he  must  have  been  a good  climber,  despite 
the  lack  of  caudal  appendage,  although  he  probably  struck  for  his  hole 
when  he  could,  and  built  him  a fire  as  protection  against  outside  invasion. 
Little  as  we  may  know,  it  is  evident,  however,  that  he  carefully  chose 
the  site  of  his  cave  in  reference  to  the  demands  of  his  simple  life,  and  if  his 
ready-made  home  did  not  fulfil  these  he  rejected  it  altogether.  Thus 
we  find  him  on  elevations,  near  streams,  and  within  reach  of  flint  and 
the  metals  which  he  has  so  cleverly  wrought. 

.3 


4 


The  Country  House 


Our  problem  is 
the  same.  We  are 
limited  by  our 
needs,  and  must, 
like  birds  and  ani- 
mals, adapt  natural 
conditions  to  them. 
With  these  the  home 
may  be  temporary; 
with  us  it  is  per- 
manent— that  is,  if 
we  are  fortunate  in 
the  exercise  of  our 
good  judgment. 

Generally  one 
can  tell  the  natural 
inclination  of  every 
individual,  from  the 
flat  shuffle  of  the 
cityite  to  the  mo- 
mentous tread  of  the  countryman,  each  of  whose  steps  is  a day’s  work.  The 
migrating  cityite  is  easy  to  mark;  he  never  really  forgets  the  flat  step; 
but  he,  like  the  parrot,  catches  the  half  sense  of  things.  There  is  he  of 
the  country  inclination,  with  his  hat  on  the  back  of  his  head,  a straw  in 
his  mouth,  stepping  high,  like  a hen,  from  past  experience  with  mud,  sand 
and  stones.  The  other  variety  is  like  a dog  that  has  swallowed  a mustard 
plaster — no  matter  which  way  he  is  headed  for  the  time  being,  he  will  eventually 
bring  up  at  water,  though  from  reasons  of  an  entirely  different  nature.  Both 
hands  are  shoved  deep  into  his  pockets  until  he  is  round  shouldered,  and  when 
he  walks  it  is  as  if  the  lower  part  of  his  anatomy  were  in  one  piece.  His  nos- 
trils are  extended  as  if  always  smelling  for  wind,  and  when  he  looks  at  his 
watch  he  pulls  his  hat  over  his  face  and  shades  his  eyes  with  his  hand. 

Be  the  destination  of  he  who  flees  from  the  city  what  it  may,  the  same  general 
problem  confronts  him;  the  same  general  conditions  are  to  be  considered,  and 
the  same  general  requirements  to  be  met.  He  still  requires  to  eat,  sleep  and 
breathe  fresh  air,  and  the  sunshine  is  just  as  requisite  to  his  personal  comfort, 
be  he  by  shore  or  mountain. 

1 his  first  problem,  that  of  the  site,  is  most  important.  The  average  man 
will  build  a fairly  good  house  on  a bit  of  land  entirely  unworthy  of  it.  We  can- 
not all  draw  plums,  but  let  us  at  least  have  a decent  slice  of  the  pudding. 

It  has  been  the  usual  method  among  prospective  builders  to  determine  upon 
the  style  and  plan  of  the  house  to  be  built,  and  then  to  choose  a site  most 

unsuited  for  the  purpose.  This  method  of  procedure  is,  strictly  speaking,  an 

illustration  of  the  hackneyed  “putting  the  cart  before  the  horse,”  and  yet  it  is 
frequently  done  with  success.  To  have  a general  idea  of  what  the  plan  may  be 
is  perhaps  not  overreaching  the  mark  to  any  extent,  and  yet  the  “general  idea” 


Selection  of  the  Site 


5 


should  not  be  so 
firmly  fixed  as  to 
cause  future  com- 
plications, as  it  is 
very  apt  to  do. 

As  is  often 
the  case,  one 
looks  about  for 
existing  examples 
that  please  him; 
this  is  natural. 
If  in  the  research 
he  becomes  com- 
pletely and  in- 


separably wedded  to 
some  particular  style, 
then  this  style  must 
govern  the  choice  of 
the  land  and  be  ever 
uppermost  in  the 
question  of  its  selection. 

The  better  way, 
by  far,  is  to  determine 
on  the  site,  procure 
it,  and  fit  the  house 
to  the  conditions  it 
involves.  This  is 
the  legitimate  method 
of  procedure,  and  will 
give  better  results  in 
the  end. 

We  all  of  us  work,  or  have  at  least  some  connection  with  a business  centre. 
This,  first  of  all,  should  be  a check  in  the  matter  of  selection. 

The  average  man  is  expected,  except  during  his  vacation,  to  be  at  a 
certain  place  each  day  for  the  transaction  of  business.  His  first  care  is  that 
he  shall  not  spend  too  much  time  on  public  conveyances  in  travelling  back 
and  forth.  If  he  he  located  in  a town  or  small  city  his  problem  is  perhaps 
simpler  than  he  of  the  large  city;  in  either  case,  the  nearness  to  public 
conveyances  and  a forethought  for  the  future  growth  of  the  locality  are  all 
important.  Although  growth  is  natural,  one  does  not  care  to  be  hemmed 
in  with  mushroom  edifices  before  the  first  coat  of  paint  has  become  hard. 

If  it  be  a case  of  a summer  home  simply,  the  problem  differs  again.  More 
land  is  naturally  implied,  and,  as  a general  thing,  the  conditions  of  summer 
and  early  fall  alone  are  to  be  considered.  Here  again  the  question  of  ease  of 


The  old  Royal  House,  Medford,  Mass.  Showing  a flat  Colonial  site  with  deciduous  growth. 
The  lower  view  gives  the  anatomy  of  the  general  lay-out 


6 


The  Country  House 

access  arises,  and  if  one  isolates  himself  it  should  be  with  the  understanding 
of  what  it  involves.  If  the 'man  of  the  house  is  to  come  up  every  week,  a com- 
pulsory drive  of  from  thirty  to  forty  miles  each  trip  has  its  drawbacks,  and 
eventually  becomes  tiresome. 

Whether  the  case  be  that  of  the  suburban  or  country  home,  the  general 
condition  of  the  public  highways  bears  strongly  on  the  question  of  ease  of  access. 
The  one  is  to  be  considered  for  the  entire  year;  the  other  offers  the  best 
there  is  in  it. 

It  is  always  better  to  have  lived  in  the  chosen  locality  through  the  proposed 
months  of  occupancy,  before  building,  in  order  that  one  may  understand  the 
conditions  thoroughly  and  guard  against  unpleasant  surprises. 

One  might  as  well  be  in  the  midst  of  wilds  as  to  be  located  in  a country 
.where  the  source  of  supplies  is  poor.  Of  course  one  does  not  expect  the 
country  store  to  carry  all  the  numerous  little  pet  fancies  of  a capricious  palate,  but 
one  does  expect  a certain  amount  of  staple  product,  and  occasionally  a yeast 
cake  that  is  not  more  than  three  days  over  the  five-year  limit.  If  one  has  chosen 
well,  the  finer  needs  of  the  table  may  be  supplied  from  town.  It  is  wise, 
however,  to  patronise  the  local  man  to  some  extent,  if  he  is  reasonable,  in 
order  that  he  may  be  encouraged  to  keep  up  his  stock  and  that  one  may  be 
sure  at  the  same  time  that  one  will  not  go  hungry.  To  rely  entirely  on  outside 
supply  is  to  tempt  fate  to  the  extent  of  an  empty  stomach  and  bad  temper. 

Fuel,  too,  is  an  item  of  some  importance,  and  though  prices  are  often  quite 
reasonable  in  the  country,  yet,  if  it  comes  from  a distance,  the  cartage,  which  may 
prove  heavy,  must  be  reckoned  with. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  question  of  privacy;  it  seems  to 
be  seldom  considered  by  the  masses  at  large.  The  good  old  continental  practice 
of  making  a closed-in  estate,  a little  world  of  one’s  own,  is  set  at  naught  by 
the  average  builder.  The  absence  of  fences  and  tree  screens  throws  what  should 
be  the  owner’s  exclusive  domain  open  to  public  invasion,  and  his  neighbour’s 
business  becomes  as  important  as  his  own.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
suburban  “lot” — a poor  little  beast,  bestraddled  by  a good,  healthy  house,  whose 
tendency  to  reach  out  is  nipped  by  circumstances  which  compel  it  to  pull  in  both 
knees  and  elbows  to  escape  its  neighbours,  like  a fat  alderman  confined  to  space 
in  a political  parade. 

Nearness  to  the  highway  is  another  menace  to  privacy,  considering  that  the 
average  American  house  faces  the  street.  This  is  particularly  obnoxious  in  a 
case  where  the  lot  is  lower  than  the  street  and  the  casual  passer-by  can  tell 
what  sort  of  a rug  you  have  on  the  floor.  Naturally,  if  the  house  be  planned 
after  the  English  style,  with  the  living  room  to  the  rear  and  facing  the  small 
private  garden,  then  there  is  no  objection  to  the  structure  setting  closer  to  the 
street  than  is  ordinarily  in  good  taste;  kitchen  windows  are  high,  and  that  part 
of  the  house  generally  takes  care  of  itself. 

The  neighbourhood  and  neighbours — look  to  them  well;  both  may  change, 
even  if  of  the  best;  this  is  your  risk.  As  an  extra  precaution  give  yourself  elbow 
room;  it  is  convenient  at  times. 

There  are  often  public  nuisances  which,  in  some  places,  are  hard  to  get 


it  should  be  strong  enough  to  serve  as  a foil  to  the  towering  trees 


8 


The  Country  House 

rid  of.  If  your  neighbour’s  pigpen  is  as  good  at  fifty  rods  as  it  is  at  one — look 
out  for  it.  If  there  is  manufacturing  within  the  radius  of  a mile,  examine  it  care- 
fully and  note  what  it  does.  If  there  be  a waterway  handy,  watch  out  for  drain- 
age; and  the  more  especially  if  it  passes  through  your  proposed  site.  Your 
neighbour  can,  with  either  good  or  bad  intentions,  make  things  highly  interesting 
for  you.  Marshes  and  swamps  are  often  very  obnoxious.  Investigate — it  may 
be  worth  while.  As  has  been  previously  stated,  it  is  best  to  live  in  the  locality 
for  a while  and  learn  about  it. 

The  principal  thing  to  avoid,  in  the  way  of  soil,  is  clay.  It  is  best  to  have 
nothing  to  do  with  it,  but  if  the  conditions  are  so  very  extraordinary  otherwise, 
and  you  are  willing  to  drain  both  your  wallet  and  the  land  thoroughly,  as 
well  as  excavate  and  grade  with  gravel  to  the  limit,  it  can  be  done.  Soft,  swampy 
land  is  also  to  be  avoided,  and  the  conditions  of  a rocky  soil  or  ledge  must  be 
fully  taken  into  consideration  before  any  decision  is  made.  Of  course  one  must 
risk  the  striking  of  a ledge  or  rock  in  the  digging  of  the  cellar;  it  cannot  always 
be  foreseen. 

The  best  soil  is,  of  course,  gravel.  The  water  filters  through  it  easily  and 
gives  the  owner  some  chance  in  the  game.  Sand  filters  too,  but  it  will  wash 
badly  unless  protected. 

A bouse  built  on  a rock  partakes  of  the  rigidity  of  its  foundation.  It  is  apt 
to  vibrate  slightly  during  a thunder  storm,  a fact  which  might  annoy  the  timid 
individual  to  some  extent  at  first.  It  is  solid,  however,  and  will  not  settle.  The 
cellar  under  such  conditions  is  a question.  There  is  the  ordinary  summer 
house  that  may  require  no  cellar.  If  the  ledge  slopes  quickly,  a cellar  may 
be  had  on  the  lower  side  of  it;  but  this  should  have  a wooden  floor,  free  from 
the  ledge,  to  avoid  such  surface  water  as  may  flow  over  it.  Blasting  can  be 
done,  but  this  is  too  expensive  for  the  ordinary  house.  A slight  elevation 
is,  of  course,  the  best  site  for  the  house  itself,  be  this  natural  or  artificial. 

The  slope  of  the  land,  if  it  be  marked  in  character,  is  better  toward  the 
south  or  in  the  direction  of  the  best  outlook.  Things  do  not  often  happen 
exactly  as  we  may  wish — then  begins  the  problem,  which  differs  from  others,  and 
hence  the  advisability  of  planning  the  house  for  the  land.  The  direction  of  the 
outlook  is  better  toward  the  sun,  that  the  living  room  may  receive  healthy  sun- 
light at  some  time  during  the  day. 

It  is  advisable  not  to  set  a hoilse  too  near  the  sea,  unless  it  be  at  a con- 
siderable height  above  it.  The  storms  of  winter  are  often  severe,  and  the 
place  for  the  ocean  is  surely  not  in  your  living  room,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
damage  to  the  outside  of  the  house.  From  six  to  twenty  inches  of  house  wall  is 
not  much  against  a wall  of  water,  with  miles  of  wall  on  wall  coming  right  along, 
with  a soaring,  snorting  hurricane  back  of  it,  urging  it  on. 

Once  upon  a time  a cheerful  idiot  built  a little  camp  on  a two-by-four 
island  in  the  most  placid  of  inland  lakes.  His  island  was  about  four  feet 
above  summer  level  at  the  highest  point,  and  his  front  porch  set  out  over  the 
water  on  posts.  That  winter  the  elements  distributed  kindlings  to  all  the  camps 
on  the  lake,  and  the  porch  was  no  mere.  The  next  winter  did  things  to  the  camp 
itself,  and  the  following-  summer  the  wreck  was  abandoned. 

O 


A summer  cottage  at  Booth  Bay,  Me.,  showing  the  evolution  from  the  bare  site  to  the  completed  structure,  with  rough  sketch  plans 

A.  Site  B.  House  on  site  (same  view)  C.  View  of  house  from  river  D.  View  seaward  from  site 

l.  Living  room  b.  Billiard  room  c.  Dining  room  d.  Kitchen  e.  Pantry  (.  China  closet  g.  Refrigerator  h.  Veranda  k.  Porte  cochtire  m.  Chamber  n.  Bathroom  o.  Hallway  p.  Nursery  s.  Balcony 


IO 


The  Country  House 


These  two  prob- 
lems of  water  sup- 
ply and  drainage 
are  probably  the 
most  important  of 
a 1 1 considerations 
in  the  building  of 
a house.  With  their 
nearness  to  perfec- 
tion comes  perfect 
health,  and  if  they 
do  not  exist  what 
excuse  is  there  for 
a home  anyway  ? 

The  water 
supply — a vital  con- 
sideration— is  either 
through  public  ser- 
vice or  is  a private 
affair.  It  will  not 

take  long  to  determine  on  the  character  and  efficiency  of  the  former.  It  should 
be  pure  and  plentiful,  and  of  sufficient  pressure  to  guarantee  its  usefulness  in 
time  of  fire.  In  this  connection  the  effectiveness  of  the  fire  department  should 
be  considered,  and  rates  of  insurance  often  stand  for  much. 

There  is  one  advantage  about  the  public  service — if  it  should  become  pol- 
luted or  otherwise  impaired,  the  public  will  rise  as  a body  to  demand  puri- 
fication. If,  however,  its  natural  conditions  are  not  good,  it  is  little  short 
of  useless. 

With  the  private  service  it  is  different,  inasmuch  as  it  may  become  a single- 
handed  combat  against  natural  odds  or  the  power  of  corporations  or  moneyed 
individuals.  Such  conditions  as  these  are  expensive  and  exasperating,  and 
should  be  well  guarded  against  at  the  start. 

When  the  public  service  does  not  exist,  it  is  the  question  of  the  spring,  or 
either  the  dug  or  driven  well.  The  spring  is  a rarity  (and  by  spring  is  meant 
that  which  is  large  enough  to  come  to  the  surface  in  considerable  volume — 
wells  are  oftentimes  fed  from  small  springs)  and,  of  course,  is  to  be  treated  as  the 
dug  well  of  greater  or  less  size.  The  driven  well  is  more  expensive,  but  perhaps 
the  best,  while  the  dug  well  is  the  most  common.  If  it  be  possible,  samples  of 
the  water  should  be  analysed  before  the  purchase  is  made.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  well  is  not  in  a position  to  receive  the  drainage  from  any  out- 
side source — this  is  most  important. 

Where  one  can  drain  into  a public  sewer  he  is  relieved  of  considerable  worry 
and  calculation  on  that  score,  although  it  is  just  as  well  to  know  where  the 
sewer  empties,  and  to  be  sure  that  by  any  miscalculation  it  does  not  connect  with 
the  water  supply  in  some  way. 

In  locating  drainage  on  the  estate  where  the  private  supply  exists,  it  is 


Selection  of  the  Site 


ii 


of  great  importance  to  see  that  the  house  and  stable  drain  will  not  come  too 
near  or  interfere  with  your  drinking  water,  and  that  its  final  disposition  shall  be  at 
a considerable  distance  from  it  and  the  house. 

It  is  the  natural  possibilities  of  the  site  that  should  appeal  to  the  pro- 
spective builder  and  be  taken  advantage  of  as  far  as  possible.  Elevation  is  a good 
thing,  but  if  it  necessitates  much  of  a climb  it  should  be  avoided.  Trees,  too, 
are  excellent,  but  their  close  proximity  to  the  house  should  not  be  considered,  as 
they  shut  in  the  view,  hinder  the  circulation  of  air,  help  to  decay  the  shingle  roof, 
and  fill  the  gutters  with  litter  that  eventually  decays  those  of  wood  and  clogs  the 
conductors.  Neither  should  they  shut  off  the  sun  too  completely — a certain 
amount  of  it  is  necessary.  On  the  other  hand,  they  may  serve  as  a wind  shield 
to  cut  off  the  house  from  the  north  or  other  points  of  the  compass  from  which 
cold  winds  blow.  Unless  a hardwood  growth  is  quite  thick  it  will  become  use- 
less for  this  purpose  in  winter,  and  even  if  close  it  becomes  little  more  than  a 
“strainer.”  Often  the  house  can  be  shielded  from  the  wind  by  setting  it  in 
the  lee  of  rising  ground. 

It  is  not  only  in  the  winter  that  cold  winds  blow,  but  during  the  summer  and 
fall  one  is  likely  to  experience  considerable  discomfort  from  them.  A thorough 
knowledge  of  the  locality  beforehand  will  tell  one  what  to  expect  and  guard  against. 

The  outlook  is,  of  course,  one  of  the  things  which  one  naturally  does  not 
forget  to  consider;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut  out  every  tree  which  comes 
anywhere  near  it.  Vistas  can  be  cut,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sweeping  view,  the 
trees  can  be  thinned  out  and  trimmed  so  as  to  make  it  count  for  more  and 
become  more  interesting  than  the  frankly  open  sweep. 

Consider  your  building  from  the  point  of  view  of  material  at  hand.  Wood  is 
always  safe,  hut  in  a rocky  country  the  rough  stone,  with  proper  surroundings, 
is  excellent.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  stone 
harmonises  best  with 
soft  wood  growth, 
while  brick  seems  to 
be  best  adapted  to 
the  deciduous  tree. 

Wood  can  be  han- 
dled to  go  with 
either.  The  cedar, 
being  more  formal, 
can  be  used  in  com- 
bination with  any 
material.  Plaster  (or 
rough-cast)  is,  ac- 
cording to  its  treat- 
ment, possible  anywhere.  The  above  generalities  are  not  laid  down  as  infallible 
rules,  but,  broadly  speaking,  they  apply.  It  is  readily  seen  that  the  utilisation  of  the 
handy  material  has  another  advantage — that  of  cheapness.  This  little  item  is  not 
to'be  sneezed  at,  considering  the  present  rates  of  labour  and  material. 


An  estate  on  the  Hudson  River.  The  long  undulating  lines  of  the  land  add  much  to  the 
character  and  possibilities  of  the  place 


12 


The  Country  House 


It  is  well  to  have  a fairly  accurate  outline  of  what  you  intend  to  do  in  the 
way  of  the  placing  of  the  buildings  before  you  have  definitely  decided  on  the  land. 
The  house,  stable,  sheds,  barns,  poultry  houses  and  yard,  cow  yard,  kitchen 
garden,  kitchen  yard,  well  house  and  whatever  else  you  may  intend  to  embody 
should  be  roughly  mapped,  with  due  regard  to  the  suggestions  previously  made. 

After  the  purchase  has  been  made,  a plan  should  be  drawn  as  accurately  as 
possible,  either  by  an  engineer  or  by  the  owner.  This  should  give  the  height 
from  the  street  grade;  the  trees  and  their  condition,  character  and  kind;  soil 
and  location  of  ledge  (if  any).  To  help  this  plan  in  its  intelligibility  it  is  well  to 
make  a series  of  photographs  of  the  place  from  various  established  points  on  the 
plan,  as  well  as  views  from  the  road.  When  this  is  done,  owner,  architect  and 
landscape  gardener  have  something  to  work  from,  although  the  site  will  probably 
be  visited  by  the  latter.  In  making  the  pictures  of  the  proposed  site  of  various 
buildings,  it  is  well  that  some  person  of  known  height  be  included  in  the  view, 
standing  on  the  site  in  question.  This  gives  the  scale  at  a glance,  and  is  of  much 
value  to  the  architect,  who  may  not  visit  the  land  until  after  the  sketches  are  made. 

If  the  question  of  price  be  an  item  with  you,  know  this — that  if  you  wear 
store  clothes,  a collar,  and  keep  your  shoes  in  passable  condition,  the  average 
countryman  will  take  you  to  be  made  of  money  and  tack  on  the  price  accor- 
dingly. When  a man  hails  from  the  city  his  fate  is  settled.  No  one  with  any 
sense  of  decency  will  object  to  paying  a fair  price  for  an  article.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  does  not  care  to  be  taken  in  on  the  strength  of  an  imaginary  fortune. 

The  better  way  is  to  get  a trustworthy  resident  to  make  the  bargain  in  his  own 
name  and  for  you  not  to  be  known  in  the  transaction.  Be  sure,  however,  that  this 

is  done  with  the 
knowledge  and 
under  the  direction 
of  a lawyer,  other- 
wise your  “trusty 
resident”  may  own 
the  land  instead  of 
yourself,  and  offer  to 
sell  it  to  you  after- 
ward at  more  profit 
than  he  is  entitled  to. 

It  is  always  best 
to  put  a binder  on 
the  land  as  soon  as 
you  decide  that  you 
want  it,  or  think 
that  you  want  it, 
pending  the  looking 

up  of  the  title.  If  you  do  not  do  this  someone  else  may  get  in  ahead  of  you. 
The  best  way  is  to  bond  the  property  for  the  sum  agreed  upon,  paying  a small 
sum  to  hold  it  for  a stipulated  length  of  time.  This  gives  you  the  refusal  of  it 
for  that  time  and  for  that  price,  and  if  you  decide  that  it  is  not  what  you  wish 


Looking  across  Newfound  Lake,  N.  H.  A good  location,  ample  height  and  excellent  view, 
suggesting  the  Colonial  farmhouse 


Selection  of  the  Site 


13 


you  lose  only  the 
binder.  In  this  way 
several  sites  may 
be  considered  and 
the  best  selected. 

Be  sure,  however, 
that  you  have  a 
lawyer’s  advice  in 
your  transaction, 
unless  you  know 
absolutely  what  you 
are  doing  yourself. 

One  argument 
in  favour  of  the 
lawyer  is  that  the 
laws  of  the  various 
states  often  differ, 
and  things  which 
seem  to  he  all  right 
are  not.  For  in- 
stance, if  you  buy 
a piece  of  land  on 

the  Maine  coast,  and  in  your  deed  your  land  is  described  as  running  in  such 
and  such  directions,  for  such  and  such  a distance  to  the  shore,  and  hence  by 
the  shore,  etc.,  you  naturally  suppose  that  you  have  a shore  privilege.  The  fact 
is  that  you  have  no  legal  right  whatever.  On  this  point  the  law  holds,  ^our  deed 
should  read  “ to  tidewaters  of  so-and-so,”  and  “by  tidewaters  so-and-so. 
Hence,  get  a lawyer;  he  is  worth  his  hire. 

In  the  matter  of  the  title  your  lawyer  again  comes  to  the  front;  he  is 
familiar  with  such  work.  If  you  know  as  much  about  it  as  he  does,  look  it 
up  yourself,  but  under  no  circumstances  slight  it — a clear  title  is  important.  If 
you  do  not  make  sure  that  the  man  who  sells  you  the  land  has  an  undisputed 
right  to  it,  someone  may  come  along  at  any  time  and  convince  a court  that  his 
right  is  better  than  yours  and — you  lose.  It  isn’t  worth  the  risk.  One  rests 
easier  with  both  the  copy  of  a clear  title  and  the  deed,  properly  recorded, 
stowed  away  in  one’s  inside  pocket. 

Not  infrequently  the  old  site  offers  as  tempting  a haven  or  one  even  more 
so  than  the  new  site.  Its  possibilities  are  well  developed  and  the  problem  of 
rejuvenating  becomes  unique.  In  some  instances  the  old  trees  are  most  tempt- 
ing, although  if  these  are  not  perfectly  sound  it  is  better  not  to  consider  them  for 
a moment.  Younger  trees  with  a life  before  them  are  preferable  to  old  ones 
whose  life  is  near  spent. 

The  various  styles  of  houses  are  adapted  to  certain  sites.  Of  course 
there  are  exceptions  to  the  following,  as  there  are  to  every  rule.  T.  he  careful 
designer  often  carries  to  a successful  completion  that  scheme  which  at  first 
seems  impractical. 


The  Orchard  House,  Concord,  Mass.  This  suggests  the  possibilities  of  the  old  site 


14 


The  Country  House 


A site  in  Roxbury,  Mass.  This  demands  a rough  stone  design  of  considerable  force  and  strength 


It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  these  instances  are,  in  comparison  with 
the  number  of  failures,  rather  a small  percentage  of  such  attempts. 

Generally  speaking,  the  formal  Colonial  and  English  styles  harmonise  best 

with  the  compara- 
tively level  site  and 
the  drooping  fluffi- 
ness of  deciduous 
trees  (see  “Royal 
House  ” and  “ Estate 
on  the  Hudson”). 

Rough,  rugged 
sites  like  the  view 
in  “Roxbury”  de- 
mand an  irregular 
design  of  consider- 
able force  and 
strength — the  rough 
stone  wall  would  do 
very  well.  Rough 

stone  is  out  of  place,  however,  if  used  in  a locality  foreign  to  it,  or  where  there  are 
no  rocks  on  the  surface  to  carry  out  their  character. 

The  long  sweep,  as  in  a “California  Vineyard”  calls  for  long,  sweeping  lines 
in  the  house.  The  “Berkshire  Hills,”  as  seen  in  the  distance,  might  suggest 
several  things;  a house  back  of  the  pines  might  be  a robust  and  vigorous 
detailed  “Colonial.”  The  “Maine  Coast”  might  be  shingle,  log,  or  rough 
stone  and  plain  plaster.  The  “Newfound  Lake”  and  the  “Penobscot  River” 
suggest  strongly  the  rambling  irregularity  of  the  Colonial  farmhouse.  The 
“Avenue  of  Palms”  calls  loudly  for  a low-pitched  roof  with  over-hanging 
eaves  which  shall  suggest  the  droop  of  the  trees.  The  various  styles  of  tropical 
houses  might  give  new  and  excellent  ideas — it  is  an  interesting  problem. 

It  h as  been  already  suggested  that  the  “Estate  on  the  Hudson”  could  be 
embellished  with  a formal  Colonial  design.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  the 

existing  building  is 
well  set  in  its  place 
and  seems  a part  of 
the  grounds.  This 
is  in  a measure  due 
to  the  fact  of  its  reg- 
ularity and  lack  of 
aggressiveness.  I n 
design  i t s central 
motive  i s derived 
from  the  F rench 
farmhouse,  while  the 
wings  are  embel- 

A California  vineyard.  Level  stretches  of  country  call  for  the  low  structure,  with  long,  . . y . . . 

sweeping  lines  lished  With  dormers 


Selection  of  the  Site 


15 


having  the  low  pitch  of  the  English  half-timber  period.  In  speaking  of  the 
English  half  timber,  it  is  well  to  add  that  a design  in  this  style  would  not  look  out 
of  place  on  this  site. 

One  very  good  method  in  determining  the  design  that  suits  the  site  is  to 
collect  photographs  of  foreign  examples,  which  can  be  gotten  in  the  larger  cities; 
domestic  examples  should  first  be  well  studied  to  understand  their  adaptability. 
Of  course,  it  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  these  can  be  taken  literally; 
conditions  of  living  are  different.  They  will,  however,  offer  invaluable  sugges- 
tions for  adaptation.  Besides  photographs,  there  are  some  high-class  architectural 
publications  which  reproduce  these,  and  which  can  be  seen  at  many  of  the  libraries. 

Not  only  should  the  acknowledged  styles  of  the  Continent  be  considered,  but 
also  the  less  known 
art  of  nations  in 
other  parts  of  the 
world. 

It  is  quite  no- 
ticeable that  parts  of 
rough  and  pine-clad 
Maine  bear  a strik- 
ing resemblance  to 
some  parts  of  Japan. 

It  would  be  impos- 
sible to  imagine  the 
bamboo  in  this  con- 
nection, and  yet  a 
modification  of  the 
simple  Japanese 
house  is  not  so 
foolish  as  it  seems 
at  first.  Some  of 
the  pine  growth 
in  this  state  reminds 

one  most  forcibly  of  the  charming  specimens  in  Japan;  and  as  to  stone — Maine 
can  surely  hold  her  own. 

Now,  for  the  sake  of  direct  argument,  let  us  take  a practical  example  (see 
cut).  This  site  is  on  the  Hudson  River.  It  does  not  matter  where.  If  you 
find  it  (and  it  is  safe  to  say  you  will  not),  lay  hands  on  it  at  once — it  is  a gem. 

Well  above  the  river  runs  a highway,  broad  and  ample.  Northeasterly, 
about  three-quarters  of  a mile,  runs  another  highway,  equally  ample  and  generally 
parallel  to  the  first.  Connecting  these  two  is  an  old  road  more  or  less  irregular 
in  its  direction,  and,  being  semi-public,  is  cut  off  by  gates  at  either  end  (see 
“G”).  A short  distance  up  on  the  old  road  from  the  river  road  the  path  divides, 
the  right-hand  branch  swinging  off  to  reach  a clear,  cool  spring,  which  comes 
from  the  rocks  (see  “A”).  This  road  swings  round  to  intercept  the  main 
branch  again  at  a point  at  which  it  makes  a right-angle  turn  to  the  northwest. 
The  road  by  the  spring  is  about  twenty-five  feet  above  the  land  below,  a rough 


On  the  Penobscot  River,  Me.  A chance  for  long,  low,  rambling  Colonial  lines 


House  designed  by  Andrews,  Jaques  & Rantoul,  architects 


of  plan  comprises  the  area  of  the  site.  (This  set  of  pictures  is  extended  on  the  opposite  page) 


i8 


The  Country  House 


stone  wall  retaining  it.  As  the  dip  of  the  land  below  the  road  is  considerable,  it 
gives  a view  from  above,  through  and  over  the  trees  to  the  south  (see  “D”).  The 
land  below  the  road  slopes  to  the  river,  where  a screen  of  trees  effectuallv  hide 
the  railroad  (see  “F”). 

I he  soil  is  good.  A few  ledges  crop  out  at  intervals  and  the  stone  walls  would 
furnish  considerable  building  material. 

1 he  growth  is  largely  cedar,  oak  and  maple,  with  a sprinkling  of  locust  and 
a few  elms.  1 his  growth  is  very  well  distributed,  and  is  even  thicker  than  is 
shown  on  the  plan,  as  the  pictures  suggest.  The  highest  point  on  the  land  is  near 
the  northern  line  and,  with  the  trees,  offers  an  excellent  wind  screen. 

So  much  for  the  present  conditions.  Now  for  the  possibilities  of  the  place. 
(On  the  plan  the  site  is  indicated  as  lighter  than  the  adjoining  property,  and  the 
existing  roadways  lighter  still.)  The  fact  that  the  old  crossroad  is  semi-public  is 
the  only  stumbling  block,  and  at  first  this  seems  a serious  objection.  Remaining 
in  its  present  location  it  makes  the  lot  impossible,  but  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
the  extending  of  this  road  in  line  with  the  easterly  portion,  and  thence  by  the 
easterly  boundary  to  the  highway  below.  This  does  two  things — makes  the 
westerly  portion  of  the  old  road  a part  of  the  estate  and  gives  a back  way  and 
service  entrance  through  the  new  extension. 


From  outside  encroachment  we  seem  to  be  secure,  as  the  highest  land  is  on 
the  lot  and  there  is  no  chance  to  throw  drainage  across  the  property,  further, 
the  lot  is  a mile  away  from  one  station  and  two  miles  from  the  other.  1 he 
river  road  is  not  the  main  highway  and  consequently  has  reasonable  chances 
of  escaping  the  trolley.  These  facts  offer  a reasonable  excuse  for  the  non- 
interference of  the  mushroom  class  of  house. 

Having  saved  a portion  of  the  old  road,  the  next  question  is,  what  is  to  be 

done  with  it  ? It 
is  important  that 
this  should  be  util- 
ised, as  its  natural 
conditions  are  ex- 
cellent. Let  us  see 
— the  spring  — yes, 
the  spring  is  a fea- 
ture and  must  come 
into  the  game  some- 
h o w . A carriage 
driving  in  must 
make  a turn  in  order 
to  get  out.  Then 
why  not  make  a 
loop  to  connect  the 
two  diverging  forks 
of  the  road  and 


A hill  site  in  Dutchess  County,  N.  Y.  The  knoll,  sheltered  by  the  oak  growth  to  the  north, 

is  a good  location 


solve  the  problem  thus  ? In  this  way  the  overflow  from  the  spring  can  be 
made  a watering  place  for  the  horses  and  its  present  intention  retained  I he 


of  the  elevated  site.  If  it  can  be  gotten  without  too  much  of  a climb,  or,  in  other  words,  if  the  raise  be  by  easy  and  unfatiguing  stages,  it  is  the  supreme  location  of  all.  The  above 
answers  every  requirement  of  this  sort  and  it  is  readily  seen  that  its  overlooking  of  its  neighbours,  increases  its  isolation  from  them  and  at  the  same  time  utilises  their  unusual 
perspective  to  enhance  the  natural  beauties  of  the  landscape.  The  value  of  a site  of  this  sort  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  Besides  the  foreground  setting  and  the  delightful  islands 
in  the  middle  distance,  the  sweep  of  the  country  across  the  bay,  which  is  miles  away,  gives  the  outlook  a bigness  that  is  better  and  happier  than  the  limited  view  of  the  flat  site. 


20  The  Country  House 

loop  is  interesting  enough  in  character  to  be  worth  perfecting,  and  is  a pleasing 
way  of  solving  the  problem  of  the  drive. 

As  the  stables  should,  of  course,  he  handy  to  the  drive,  it  has  been  indicated 

to  the  eastward  of 
the  loop  and  near 
the  service  entrance 
and  the  extension  of 
the  old  road.  If  it 
is  deemed  too  con- 
spicuous in  its  pres- 
ent position,  it  can 
be  put  behind  the 
trees  farther  to  the 
south.  In  fact  this 
suggestion  seems  a 
good  one,  inasmuch 
as  it  will  solve  one 
problem  very  nicely. 

1 he  manure  pit  can 
be  hollowed  out  of 
the  face  of  the  nat- 
ural terrace,  and  be 
made  with  an  arched 

stone  or  brick  roof,  with  the  chutes  leading  to  it  from  above.  As  the  wall  faces 
th  e south  a projecting  outside  pen  can  he  added,  and  thus  the  pigs  will  be 
comfortably  housed  and  one  more  bothersome  question  disposed  of. 

Naturally  the  first  consideration  would  he  the  location  of  the  house.  In 
this  instance,  however,  the  disposal  of  the  road,  which  we  have  already  con- 
sidered, was  the  important  question.  Then,  too,  one  could  see  at  a glance 
where  the  location  of  the  house  should  be;  and  even  if  there  were  any  hesitancy, 
the  sunset  across  the  river,  the  view  through  the  trees  and  a glance  at  the  wind- 
sheltering  hill  would  instantly  dispel  it. 

The  ordinary  thing  to  do  would  be  to  put  the  bouse  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
drive  and  let  it  go  at  that.  Fortunately  this  is  not  an  ordinary  problem.  \ he 
sunset  and  the  river  at  once  suggest  a long  frontage  in  that  direction.  Although 
we  have  decided  on  the  upper  side  of  the  road,  we  still  go  back  to  the  spring. 
Here  is  an  idea — why  not  carry  a wing  of  the  house  across  the  road,  arching 
over  it  ? In  this  case  the  billiard  room  and  den  can  be  placed  on  the  spring  side, 
where  they  become  semi-detached  from  the  main  house  by  means  of  the  arch, 
which  is  an  advantage.  Of  course  there  will  have  to  be  a corridor  from  the  main 
part  of  the  house  to  the  den,  but  this  can,  if  necessary  in  rising  to  clear  the 
arch,  remain  at  that  level,  allowing  the  like  raising  of  the  billiard  room  and 
den  floors,  which  will  give  a room  below  each  of  them.  I hus  there  can  be  a 
storeroom  under  the  billiard  room,  and  the  room  under  the  den  can  be  used  for 
the  pump,  as  the  water  supply  naturally  comes  in  at  this  point.  I he  den  should 
be  carried  up  into  a tower. 


Old  birch  growth  on  the  Maine  coast.  An  excellent  chance  for  the  log  or  rough-plaster  house 


Selection  of  the  Site 


21 


The  main  outlay  is  simply  the  dining  room  and  parlour,  with  a wide  hall 
between  and  stairs  at  the  northeasterly  end.  The  library  is  south  of  the  parlour  and 
next  the  arch.  The  kitchen  and  service  are  in  an  L to  the  north  and  at  an  angle  to 
the  dining  room,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  view.  The  service  driveway  comes 
in  at  the  east  of  the  kitchen,  by  the  way  of  the  stable.  A deep  veranda  seems  to 
be  requisite  across  the  front  of  the  house,  which  might  continue  narrowly  over  the 
drive  to  the  den.  A simple  formal  garden  can  be  placed  to  the  southwest,  with  a 
summer  house  at  its  extremity,  and  on  a line  with  the  central  walks  and  the  hall. 

On  the  crest  of  the  hill  to  the  north  of  the  lot  is  a chance  to  erect  a windmill 
for  further  water  supply  and  for  general  use.  This  would  be  well  in  case  of  fire. 
Below  the  windmill,  under  the  hill,  where  it  would  be  sheltered  from  wind,  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  and  handy  to  the  water,  the  kitchen  garden  could  be  placed. 

The  gardener’s  or  caretaker’s  lodge  has  been  located  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  road  at  the  old  gate,  as  this  location  seems  a good  one.  It  might,  perhaps, 
be  shifted  to  the  other  side  of  the  road,  where  it  will  be  under  the  bank  and 
lower.  In  this  case  the  living  room  and  sleeping  rooms  could  be  on  a level  with 
the  drive  and  the  kitchen  and  dining  room  below. 

The  drainage  is  easily  taken  care  of.  It  might  be  carried  to  the  lower  ground 
below  the  natural  terrace.  It  could,  if  thought  desirable,  be  carried  across  the 
road  into  the  field  by  the  river,  taking  in  the  lodge  on  the  way,  and  this  would 
probably  be  the  better  method.  Either  would  require  about  the  same  amount  of 
pipe,  considering  one  cesspool  in  both  cases. 

The  open  field  across  the  road  will  allow  of  tennis  courts  and  a large 
garden  if  desired. 

There  would,  of  course,  have  to  be  some  thinning  out  of  the  growth  in  order 
that  the  best  of  it  be  given  a better  chance.  With  this,  vistas  could  be  opened  up  to 
such  bits  of  view  as  were  deemed  worthy.  On  the  whole,  the  plot  is  in  remarkable 
condition  for  occupancy  as  it  is,  barring,  of  course,  the  right  of  way  through  it. 

The  house  shown  is  merely  to  give  an  idea  of  a good  style  to  follow. 
This  excellent  example  is  based  on  the  French  farmhouse,  and  it  suggests  some- 
thing perfectly  in  harmony  with  the  stone  and  the  wood  growth.  The  sky  line  of 
the  “problem”  house  would  have  to  be  more  vigorous,  however,  but  this  is  a 
matter  of  adaptation. 

There  is  another  style  that  could  be  used  on  this  site  with  equal  success — 
that  of  the  Italian — plaster  walls  or  stone  and  plaster,  and  tile  roofs.  By  this  is 
not  meant  the  larger  and  formal  villas,  but  the  simpler  and  more  irregular 
creations  of  the  hill  towns  and  country.  The  cedar,  which  suggests  forcibly  the 
Italian  landscape,  we  have  in  abundance,  and  the  scheme  is  thoroughly  practical. 
Under  this  treatment  the  spring  becomes  the  Italian  fount  or  well. 

This  general  solution  of  the  problem  is,  of  course,  not  the  only  one,  but  it 
is  somewhere  near  to  a good  solution  and  suggests  the  way  in  which  such  a 
problem  should  be  considered.  The  rough  plan  came  as  a natural  result  of  the 
existing  conditions.  The  average  builder  would  not,  perhaps,  get  as  far  as  to  see 
the  house  outlay  at  once — it  is  not  his  fault  if  he  does  not. 


A $12,000  house  of  field  stone  partially  covered  with  stucco;  a type  common  in  English  towns 


CHAPTER  II 
Planning  the  House 

T IS  a common  saying  that  a man  must  plan  and  build  three 
houses  before  he  will  get  what  he  wants.  judging  from  the  way 
in  which  he  ordinarily  goes  about  the  job,  there  seems  some 
reason  for  this  statement. 

The  planning  of  a house  requires  considerable  thought  and 
calculation.  It  is  a most  serious  matter  and  should  be  taken 
seriously.  The  owner  naturally  has  ideas  of  his  own,  and 
generally  pitted  against  these  are  many  time-tried  conditions  and  the  question  of 
good  design,  as  exemplified  by  the  architect.  We  have  said  “pitted”  for  the 
lamentable  reason  that  these  things  are  generally  antagonistic.  It  has  been  the 
common  thing  to  consider  the  architect  as  one  who  wittingly  lays  himself  out  to 
spend  about  twice  as  much  as  the  stipulated  cost  of  the  structure,  and  the  owner  as 
a confirmed  crank  who  wall  antagonise  any  idea  advanced  by  the  architect  and 
stick  like  glue  to  a few  petty  and  insignificant  notions.  Both  are  ol  course 
false,  and  yet  there  is  a reason  for  these  things,  and  when  they  are  thoroughly  sifted 
the  owner  will  be  found  all  unconsciously  responsible  for  the  larger  part  of  them. 

If  you  have  ever  gone  over  the  capitol  building  at  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
, you  will  undoubtedly  have  heard  the  guide  remark  in  conclusion:  “And  the 
most  wonderful  thing  about  it  is  that  it  was  built  within  the  appropriation,” 
just  as  if  this  fact  were  a novelty — wdiich  it  is. 


22 


23 


Planning  the  House 

It  has  always  been  a failing  of  the  general  public  to  expect  about  twice  or 
three  times  the  value  of  every  dollar  it  spends.  In  the  case  of  the  building  of  a 
house,  the  prospective  builder  wants  this  and  that  and  something  else  that  he 
has  seen,  until  the  grand  total  has  run  up,  without  the  slightest  exertion,  from 
the  five-thousand-dollar  limit  to  ten  or  fifteen  thousand.  It  is  so  natural  to  want 
things,  and  so  fatally  easy. 

To  meet  the  wants  of  his  client  and  in  the  hope  of  pleasing  him,  the 
architect  naturally  blunders  into  the  same  snare.  Even  at  the  risk  of  over-run- 
ning a little,  he  attempts  what  he  knows  to  be  impossibilities.  Often,  too,  he 
wittingly  runs  over  in  the  knowledge  that  clients  frequently  have  named  a certain 
limit,  with  the  predetermination  of  spending  more  if  necessary.  There  are,  of 
course,  unscrupulous  architects  who  intend  to  deceive  and  involve  the  client,  but 
these,  happily,  are  few.  Unfortunately,  though  few  in  number,  they  may  have 
done  much  to  further  the  false  notion  of  the  profession  at  large. 

I here  is  another  condition  which  does  much  to  roughen  the  smooth  relations 
between  client  and 
architect,  and  that 
is  the  remarkable 
self-assurance  of  the 
former.  Does  the 
average  man  at- 
tempt to  plan  a loco- 
motive, a sailing 
vessel  or  the  detail 
survey  of  a railroad  ? 

He  goes  to  the  ex- 
pert, of  course. 

With  the  house  it  is 
different.  It  is  so 
simple — like  “rol- 
ling off  a log.”  The 
architect  is  only  a 
copyist,  anyway — he 
doesn’t  originate 
anything.  Just  here 
he  makes  a grave 
mistake.  Yes,  the 
average  man  can 
plan  a house,  and 
it  may  stand  as  long 
and  as  well  as  an- 
other; he  can  plan  a 
locomotive,  too,  but 
will  it  ever  get 
beyond  the  model 
room  ? The  house 


House  at  Osterville,  Mass.  An  interesting  solution  of  the  summer  problem. 
Chapman  & Frazer,  architects 


2 4 


The  Country  House 

is  an  inoffensive  and  mobile  animal.  If  it  be  tremendously  ugly  it  won’t  explode, 
and  if  your  front  door  opens  into  the  kitchen  pantry  it  isn’t  a locomotive  that 
will  not  run.  It  is  not  a ship  that  will  “turn  turtle.”  If  your  roof  should 

look  like  a number- 
ten  hat  on  a ten- 
days-old  puppy,  or 
an  impossible  rail- 
road grade;  if  you 
do  have  to  crawl 
on  your  hands  and 
knees  under  a roof 
valley  to  get  into 
the  best  chamber — 
still  no  catastrophe 
will  occur,  except 
perhaps  a slow  and 
sure  arrival  at  the 
insane  asylum.  A 
man  was  once  asked 
the  question  as  to 
who  designed  his 
house.  He  replied:  “My  wife;  Mr.  So- 
and-So  drew  the  plans.”  As  the  edifice 
was  a little  masterpiece  throughout, 
and  the  wife  of  a very  ordinary  sort,  it 
is  readily  seen  at  how  much  some  people 
rate  the  architect’s  labours.  There  are 
some  people  of  taste  who  are  better 
fitted  to  be  architects  than  many  of  the 
profession,  but  they  lack,  almost  always, 
the  intimate  knowledge  of  the  subject 
which  tends  to  complete  success.  We 
frequently  see  and  hear  of  houses 
“built  without  an  architect.”  We  can- 
not dispute  the  possibility;  it  is  the 
result  that  we  question. 

Now  if  the  client  would  only  be 
willing  to  admit  that  the  architect  is 
master  of  his  profession,  and  the 
architect  in  turn  be  thoroughly  honest 
with  the  client  and  with  himself,  then 
things  might  run  a little  smoother  and 
pleasanter  than  they  often  do,  and  the 
general  results  would  gain  very  con- 
siderably. 

The  sensible  way  to  go  about  the 


Brick  and  stucco  house  at  Manchester,  Mass.  A simple  and 
dignified  rendering.  Andrews,  Jaques  & Rantoul,  architects 


25 


Planning  the  House 


the  stairs  will 
go  up  within 


An  excellent  adaptation  of  English  and  French  half-timber  work.  Cost 
about  $ 1 7,000.  Wm.  L.  Price,  architect 


matter  would  seem  to  be  by  progressive  stages.  If  you  have  an  idea  of  what  you 
wish,  make  rough  sketches  of  it  and  think  it  over.  New  ideas  come — put  them 
on  paper.  If  you  can  blunder  through  a drawing  in  any  sort  of  shape,  get  a 
drawing  board,  T-square  and  triangle  and  lay  the  first  plan  out  to  scale.  Then 
you  will  discover 
that 
not 

the  space  that  you 
thought  and  that 
your  pantry  isn’t 
large  enough — just 
such  things  as  you 
should  discover,  too. 

Calculate  for  furni- 
ture, etc.,  and  when 
you  have  gotten 
what  you  think  is 
right,  make  a trac- 
ing of  it  and  take  it 
to  your  architect. 

At  this  stage  he 

should  be  made  familiar  with  the  pro- 
posed site,  so  as  not  to  work  entirely  in 
the  dark.  He  may  then,  too,  be  able 
to  suggest  things  which  you  have  over- 
looked or  have  not  thought  of. 

Your  architect  should  be  chosen 
with  care,  and  friendship  should  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  choice;  such  a 
combination  of  relations  is  often  disas- 
trous. You  have  probably  seen  some 
particular  thing  which  you  fancy;  the 
man  who  did  it  is  the  man  you  want; 
don’t  get  someone  else  to  copy  his  design. 

If  you  have  no  very  clear  idea  as  to 
what  you  wish,  go  to  the  professional 
man  at  once.  In  any  case  get  rough 
sketches  at  first,  so  as  not  to  make  too 
expensive  a job  of  it;  if  the  finished 
plans  have  to  be  altered  too  much,  the 
architect  is  apt  to  lose  his  interest  and 
to  neglect  or  slight  yours. 

While  your  outlay  is  being  put  in 
shape,  try  other  schemes  or  keep  on  with 
the  original  sketch,  trying  to  better  it. 

This  last  can  be  done  by  making  the 


Pi*n  of  Second  Story 


26 


The  Country  House 


new  sketch  on  tracing  paper  over  the  first.  Keep  all  your  efforts,  as  they  are 
valuable  for  reference.  Pick  out  the  best  features  of  your  many  attempts  and  try 
if  they  will  combine;  they  probably  won’t,  but  try.  Do  not  prolong  your  fun  so 

as  to  make  the 
architect  too  much 
work  in  changing 
and  rechanging. 

When  your 
architect  has  de- 
livered his  sketch, 
go  over  it  and  sleep 
on  it.  If  you  think 
it  is  not  as  good  as 
yours,  tell  him  so 
in  a pleasant  way 
and  he  may  tell  you 
something  you  do 
not  know,  or  vice 
versa.  Try  the 
tracing  paper  on 
that,  but  be  sure 
that  you  understand 
thoroughly  w hat 
the  drawing  means 
and  learn  how  to 
read  it  before  you 
condemn  it. 

The  first  floor  is  the  most  important;  the  second  floor  generally  adjusts 
itself,  and  you  can  see  in  a general  way  how  it  will  work  out.  After  your  first 
floor  is  settled,  draw  the  second  and  attic  and  cellar,  or  let  your  architect  have  the 
first  try  at  it. 

It  is  important  that  you  should  take  as  much  time  as  possible  to  think  the 
thing  out,  but  when  it  is  satisfactorily  settled  go  ahead.  Mistakes  and  omissions 
are  expensive,  if  one  tries  to  rectify  them  during  the  process  of  construction, 
and  it  is  very  seldom  that  they  can  .be  satisfactorily  rectified.  If  it  be  possible, 
the  three-quarter-scale  drawings  (if  any)  should  be  finished  up  to  the  figures  at 
the  time  the  plans  are  to  be  estimated  upon.  In  this  way  the  client  knows  better 
what  he  is  to  get,  the  contractor  has  a fairer  show,  and  omissions  and  mistakes  are 
less  likely  to  occur. 

It  is  next  to  impossible  to  lay  down  many  hard-and-fast  rules  to  govern  the 
planning  of  a house.  Personal  habits  and  ideas  are  all-important  factors;  and 
what  might  be  inadequate  for  one  man  might  be  perfectly  satisfactory  for  another. 
A few  general  hints  will  suffice  to  set  the  reader  to  thinking,  and  in  setting  these 
forward  for  his  consideration  we  are  doing  all  that  can  be  done. 

First,  we  should  consider  the  convenience  of  the  plan  and  its  reference  to 
every-day  uses  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  kept  up  and  cared  for.  Do 


Log  and  stone  house  at  Bar  Harbor,  Me.  Designed  and  built  by  a local  carpenter,  and  very 
suggestive  despite  its  faults 


28 


The  Country  House 


Stucco  house  in  the  English  inference,  at  Clifton,  Mass. 
Chapman  & Frazer,  architects 


not  “bite  off  more  than  you  can  chew”  is  an  old  saying  fit  to  be  remembered. 
Consider  as  much  as  possible  the  working  organs  of  the  house,  so  that  all  who  have 

anything  to  do  with 
1 it,  either  owners, 
guests,  servants  or 
tradespeople,  shall 
find  what  they  want 
without  too  many 
steps  or  too  much 
trouble.  Nor  should 
any  of  these  conflict 
in  any  way  in  work- 
ing of  the  general 
machinery.  Con- 
sider the  diverse 
points  between 
which  the  most  trav- 
elling is  done,  and 
bring  them  as  near 
together  as  possible 
without  conflicting 
with  something  else. 
It  is  not  desirable  that 
your  servant  should 
be  obliged  to  climb 
over  the  dining-room 
table  in  order  to 
answer  the  front- 
doorbell.  Make  your 
plan  simple  and  the 
rooms  i n natural 
relation  to  one  an- 
other, and  don’t 
have  to  go  through 
a room  of  a some- 
what retired  char- 
acter to  find  one  of 
a more  public  na- 
ture ; as,  for  instance, 
through  the  library 
into  the  living  room. 
When  one  is  obliged 
to  encroach  on  any 
one  function  to  per- 
form another  it  is 
bad  planning. 


F/RST  FLOOR 


SECOND  FLOOR 


29 


Planning  the  House 


Once  upon  a time  a man  bought  an  old  Dutch  Colonial  farmhouse  on  a 
beautiful  spot  in  the  state  of  New  York.  Its  exterior  was  charmingly  simple  and 
dignified.  Not  so 
the  interior.  The 
front  door  opened 
into  the  sitting  room, 
and  the  servant 
was  obliged  to  go 
through  this  room 
and  the  dining  room 
to  answer  the  bell. 

The  front  stairway 
led  from  the  sitting 
room  through  a slit 
in  the  wall  into  a 
chamber,  and  they 
were  as  steep  as  a 
barn  ladder.  One 
night  the  head  of 
the  house  got  up  to 
get  the  baby  a little 
subjugator  and  neg- 
lected to  light  a 
lamp.  First  he  tried 
to  get  into  the  servant’s  room, 
which  aroused  that  terrified 
worthy  to  screams;  then  he  tried 
the  guest’s  room  with  like  result. 

Finally  he  escaped  through  the 
son’s  room,  only  to  fall  part  way 
downstairs  in  an  effort  to  cross 
the  landing.  By  this  time  the 
whole  house  was  up  and  look- 
ing for  the  burglar. 

O O 


An  excellent  example  of  English  design,  at  Overbrook,  Pa.  Cost,  about  $12,000 
Wm.  and  Walter  Price,  architects 


Steps  from  one  room  to  another  and  all  places  where  one  is  likely  to  get  a fall 
should  be  avoided.  The  making  of  one  part  of  the  house  on  a different  level  from 
the  rest  is  picturesque  enough,  but  is  it  worth  the  while  ? A confusion  of  doors 
is  bad.  For  instance,  not  long  ago  an  old  lady  who  had  occasion  to  arise  in  the 
night  mistook  the  backstair  door  for  that  desired  and,  there  being  no  landing 
at  the  top,  she  stepped  off  and  fell  to  her  death.  Such  backstairs  should  have  a 
landing  with  a rope  or  gate  across  it  at  night,  if  by  any  chance  they  are  allowed 
to  exist  at  all. 

Eve  v house  should  have  a permanent  front  and  back  vestibule  or 
enclosed  porch.  This  is  important  in  order  to  keep  out  the  cold,  and  further 
because  there  are  often  callers  at  both  front  and  back  doors  whom  one  does 
nor  wish  to  admit  further  into  the  house.  Then  again  the  vestibule  is  an 


30  The  Country  House 

admirable  place  for  storm  clothing  and  umbrellas.  The  portable  vestibule  is  ugly 
and  generally  unhandy. 

It  is  well  that  there  should  be  a direct  and  independent  avenue  of  communica- 
tion between  the  kitchen  and  the  front  door.  The  reasons  for  this  are  obvious. 

The  relation  of  the  kitchen  to  the  rest  of  the  house  is  one  of  importance,  the 
great  difficulty  being  that  the  odour  of  the  cooking  generally  permeates  the  whole 
establishment.  The  ordinary  remedy  is  to  arrange  two  sets  of  doors  between  it 
and  the  rest  of  the  house,  which  is  some  help  at  least.  A most  excellent  scheme 
is  suggested  in  the  plan  of  the  “Osterville”  house  by  Messrs.  Chapman  & Frazer. 
In  this  the  kitchen  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  house  by  a porch,  the 
opposite  sides  of  which  are  open.  This  allows  of  a current  of  air,  which  is  a 
most  effective  remedy  for  the  pursuing  odours  of  cabbage  and  the  like.  1 his,  of 
course,  is  for  a summer  house,  but  it  seems  as  if  a modification  of  this  for  cold 
weather  might  be  effected.  A radiator  with  a partial  screening-in  might  effect  this. 

It  is  often  very  convenient  to  have  sleeping  rooms  on  the  first  story,  at  least 
for  the  family  use.  It  saves  much  running  up  and  down  stairs  in  cases  where 
one  is  not  wholly  dependent  upon  servants.  Every  sleeping  room  should  have 

a comfortably  large  closet;  its  con- 
venience cannot  be  overestimated. 

Bathrooms  are  usually  located  on 
the  second  floor,  so  as  to  be  handy  to 
the  sleeping  or  dressing  rooms.  1 here 
should  be  a toilet  on  the  first  floor  for 
family  use  and  one 
in  the  basement  for 
the  servants. 

There  should 
be  a trunk  room, 
and  this  should  be 
located  on  the  sec- 
ond story,  if  pos- 
sible, where  it  is 
most  convenient  to 
the  packing  and  un- 
packing. If  not  on 
the  second  story,  it 
might  be  located  on 
the  floor  below  and 
be  used  for  both 
trunks  and  bicycles. 
Sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  is  more  con- 
venient to  place  it 
in  the  attic. 

Fireplaces  are 
great  ventilators,  as 


Plan  of  the  practical  example  on  the  Maine  coast.  The  shore  is  shown  closer  to  the  house 
than  it  should  be,  simply  to  give  the  relation  of  lines.  The  sketch  shows  what  might  be  done 
with  the  exterior 


Planning  the  House 


3i 


well  as  excellent  to  remove  the  chill  or  damp  of  the  early  spring  or  fall  and 
frequently  of  a summer  day. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  purist,  every  room  in  the  house  should  be 
finished  in  the  same 
style.  To  be  more 
liberal  and  to  help 
out  the  feeling  and 
intention  of  the 
several  rooms,  there 
seems  to  be  no  ob- 
jection to  using 
several  different 
periods  of  the  style 
of  the  country,  viz., 

Louis  XIV.,  Louis  XV.  and  Empire.  This 
should  not  be  done,  however,  unless  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  carry  out  the  purpose  ot 
the  rooms.  Such  combinations  as  Colonial 
and  Gothic  are  out  of  the  question,  al- 
though Colonial  and  Italian  would  do  very 
well.  In  a Colonial  house,  for  example,  such 
an  introduction  as  the  Turkish  is  not  to  be 
thought  of,  unless  it  be  applied  to  such  a 
room  as  the  den  or  others,  out  of  the  main 
group,  and  in  a measure  set  off  from  the 
vital  considerations  of  the  plan. 

The  importance  of  the  veranda  in  the 
planning  of  the  country  house  must  not  be 
lost  sight  of.  It  should  be  at  least  seven 
feet  wide,  and  wider  if  possible.  If  covered, 
it  should  not  be  allowed  to  darken  the  ad- 
jacent room;  or,  in  other  words,  the  room 
should  have  other  sources  of  light  in  case 
the  veranda  side  be  insufficient.  It  is  far 
easier  to  shut  out  light  than  to  let  it  in.  In 
a country  where  insects  become  an  important 
consideration  (and  they  have  an  insinuating 
way  of  forcing  their  attentions  on  one),  a portion  of  the  veranda  should  be 
screened  in  with  access  only  through  the  house.  In  this  way  it  becomes  a part  of 
the  house,  without  the  objection  of  going  through  an  unscreened  passage  to  get 
to  it.  If  it  can  be  located  so  as  to  be  convenient  for  outdoor  meals  it  is  an 
advantage. 

In  some  parts  of  California  it  is  said  to  be  necessary  at  times  to  go  out  of 
doors  in  order  to  keep  warm.  Under  such  conditions  the  sun  parlour  becomes 
a necessity. 

As  more  can  be  learned  in  the  actual  going  over  of  some  particular  problem, 


Plan  and  views  of  the  site  on  the  Maine  coast.  The 
upper  view  is  of  the  site  from  the  southeast,  the  middle 
is  the  view  from  site  to  the  south,  the  bottom  is  a 
general  view  of  the  site  from  the  southeast 


32 


The  Country  House 


F/frsr  Flock. 


let  us  consider  the  accompanying  site  on  the  Maine  coast  as  a practical  example. 
I his  has  the  advantage  of  being  just  such  a problem  as  one  would  be  called 

upon  to  consider. 
It  is  still  an  unsolved 
problem,  and  the 
reader  starts  with 
practically  the  same 
advantage  as  the 
writer.  It  is  not  the 
unsatisfactory  ques- 
tion of  how  has  it 
been  done,  but  how 
is  it  to  he  done  ? 

There  may  be 
those  who  will  fall 
in  love  with  this  site 
and  wish  to  know 
where  it  is  situated. 
Forbear,  gentle 
thirster  for  knowl- 
edge, and  know  that 
this  secret  is  jealous- 
ly guarded. 

The  site  is  on  the  shores  of  a bay, 
contains  about  forty  acres,  and  is  about 
one-half  mile  from  the  main  highway.  As 
I | »,»/w  *..m,  I nr,K  shown  on  the  plan,  it  is  irregular  in  shape 

r“w"“  I r— x ')  and  divided  into  three  distinct  divisions — a 

Ji 1 ■ ■■■  —I  I ■ second-growth  wood  to  the  north,  a cleared 

farm,  and  a triangular  sheep  pasture. 
The  second-growth,  which  lies  on  either 
side  of  the  private  road,  is  mostly  larch 
and  white  birch,  with  a sprinkling  of 
spruce.  The  farm  proper  is  cleared  and 
has  upon  it  a cottage  house,  a barn,  a shop 
and  another  small  building,  all  in  fairly 
good  condition.  The  portion  of  this  part 
toward  the  bay  is  the  mowing  field.  The 
pasture  is  freely  strewn  with  rocks  (granite) 
and  has  a fringe  of  trees  along  the  shore, 
mostly  spruce,  pine  and  old-growth  birch.  1 he  point  is  fairly  high  on  the 
bay  side,  sloping  back  gradually  to  the  road.  The  highest  point  on  the  site  is 
about  midway  of  the  rail  fence  between  the  mowing  field  and  the  pasture.  To 
the  north  of  the  farm  building  a small  inlet  runs  across  the  private  roadway. 


Mining  7Zoom* 


Stucco  house  at  Glen  Ridge,  N.  J.  A well 
studied  example  on  English  lines 

H.  Van  Buren  Magonigle,  architect 


Second  Floods 


M 


Chamber 


Chamber 


ber 


This  suggests  much  in  the  line  of  future  lay-out. 

The  soil  is  gravelly  and  of  considerable  depth, 


the  whole  front  structure 


33 


Planning  the  House 


being  on  a ledge  foundation.  This  ledge,  extending  to  the  east,  becomes  destitute 
of  soil,  and  serves  as  a breakwater  to  the  cove.  Off  the  shore  to  the  south 
several  lobster  pots 
are  set,  showing  the 
possibilities  in  that 
direction;  on  the 
cove  side  are  gener- 
ous clam  beds. 

From  the  high 
ground  one  can  see 
to  the  west  the  sun- 
set across  the  water, 
to  the  south  the 
sweep  of  the  bay 
with  the  islands,  to 
the  - east  an  along- 
shore view,  and  to 
the  north  the  inland 
country  with  its  hills 
and  mountains. 

It  has  been  Another  view  of  the  Glen  Ridge  house,  showing  how  the  thatch  effect  has  been  suggested 

necessary  to  give  a in  shin£‘es 

general  idea  of  the 

plot,  so  that  the  reader  can  gain  a fuller  idea  of  the  conditions  than  the  pictures 
alone  suggest. 

Now  let  us  consider  the  problem  of  the  planning  of  the  house,  the 
utilisation  of  the  farm  buildings  and  other  obvious  problems.  In  looking  over 
the  ground  there  seems  to  be  but  one  place  for  the  house,  and  that  is  to  the 
easterly  end  of  the  pasture,  just  clear  of  the  fringe  of  trees.  This  is  shown  in 
the  two  land  pictures  and  the  plan.  Of  course  there  are  other  good  places,  but 
this  seems  to  be  the  best  suited  to  the  natural  conditions,  and  furthermore  is  far 
enough  from  the  shore  to  warrant  the  structure  remaining  a house  rather  than  a 
lobster  trap.  It  requires  no  disturbing  of  the  growth  to  get  the  northerly,  easterly 
and  southerly  views.  The  westerly  outlook  is  somewhat  shut  in  by  trees  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  fringe;  those  below  can  be  seen  over,  in  a similar  manner  to 
those  shown  in  the  picture  looking  across  the  bay.  It  has  the  advantage,  too, 
of  not  being  too  closely  shut  in  with  trees,  as  is  the  case  with  several  other 
delightful  spots  in  the  midst  of  the  growth  itself. 

Water  can  be  gotten  to  the  north  of  this  spot,  and  the  open  space  seems  an 
excellent  location  for  a windmill  and  a tank,  both  from  its  position  and  its 
height  above  the  house  site.  We  assume  the  water  possibility  from  the  fact  that 
the  farm  has  a good  well  near  the  top  of  the  same  ridge. 

As  the  pasture  is  at  the  present  time  tenanted  by  sheep,  which  keep 
the  herbage  cropped  to  a velvety  shortness,  it  suggests  that  this  feature 
might  well  be  retained,  sheep  and  all.  It  is  an  inexpensive  way  of  keeping 
the  grass  cut,  as  well  as  a most  interesting  feature  of  the  place.  If  it 


34 


The  Country  House 


be  found  that  they  encroach  too  much  on  the  immediate  dooryard,  they 
can  easily  be  fenced  out  of  that  portion  of  it.  However,  they  are  not  goats, 
and  in  any  event  will  not  get  on  the  roof  and  devour  the  shingles. 

1 he  stable  can 
be  located  on  the 
slope  of  the  hill 
near  the  pasture 
fence  and  just  over 
its  brow  to  the 
north,  so  that  its 
drainage  shall  be  in 
the  direction  of  the 
garden. 

The  existence 
of  the  farm  build- 
ings is  fortunate, 
from  the  fact  that 
they  can  be  rented 
to  some  responsible 
party  or  serve  as 
the  gardener’s  or 
caretaker’s  quarters. 
In  any  case  a care- 
taker and  fresh 
vegetables  are  as- 
sured. These  build- 


Pimru Co 


rvj  K-OOTTt 


Pea 


A most  interesting  stone  house  at 
Wallingford,  Pa.  Cost  about  $7,000. 
Wm.  L.  Price,  architect 


ings  are,  as  pre- 
viously stated,  in 
fair  condition,  and 
could  be  put  in 
first-class  condition 
with  the  outlay  of  little  money. 

There  is  another  consideration  here  which 
is  most  decidedly  in  our  favour— the  cottage 
could  be  used  by  the  owner  until  his  house  is 
completed.  He  can  spend  his  vacation  here  in 
looking  over  the  outlay  and  gathering  data  for  his 
plans,  which  can  be  put  in  shape  during  the  winter. 
He  can  then  be  upon  the  scene  of  construction  the 
following  season — under  the  feet  of  the  workmen — 
where  he  is  sure  to  make  himself  generally  disliked 
and  have  nice  things  said  of  him. 

And  now  to  the  plan  itself.  After  consider- 
able scribbling  on  rough  sketches,  we  have  evolved 
the  accompanying  scale  drawing  as  something  to 
illustrate  the  possibilities.  Its  rooms  have  been 


35 


Planning  the  House 


made  of  fairly  large  size,  as  it  seems  best  that  they  should  be.  There  has  been 
no  price  restriction,  but  we  must  not  be  too  extravagant.  The  scheme  sug- 
gested would  cost  from  $20,000  to  $30,000  in  the  rough  field  stone  of  that  locality. 
It  might  even  be  built  for  less.  It  depends  largely  on  the  inside  finish. 

The  most  important  views  being  those  to  the  west  and  south,  the  same 
should  be  considered 
in  the  laying  out  of 
the  plan.  I he  din- 
ing room  has  good 
views  toward  the 
bay  and  across  the 
garden  and  the 
water  toward  the 
west  and  the  sunset. 

There  is  also  a 
window  to  the  east 
which  will  allow  the 
morning  sunlight  to 
enter  the  room.  The 
living  room  has  an 
extensive  view  of 
the  bay,  with  the 
garden  in  the  fore- 
ground, and  through 

the  open  arch  of  the  alcove  a view  of 
the  sunset  through  and  over  the  trees. 

This  room  has  also  two  windows  to  the 
north,  commanding  a view  of  the 
approach  to  the  house. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  long  axis 
of  the  house  is  not  due  east  and  west; 
it  seems  wise  that  this  should  be  rather 
in  line  with  the  point  of  sunset  in 
midsummer.  It  makes  no  real  differ- 
ence, of  course,  and  is  a matter  of 
individual  taste  entirely,  its  oniy  ad- 
vantage being  in  the  long  view  thus 
obtained.  As  it  is,  a person  stand- 
ing on  the  reception-room  hearth  at 
this  time  of  the  year  would  get  a 
clear,  uninterrupted  vista  of  over  fifty 
feet  through  the  three  rooms,  and 
this  vista  would  continue  on  through 
the  trees. 

All  the  rooms  are  well  lighted, 
with  the  light  concentrated  where 


The  old  Royal  House, 
Medford,  Mass.  Showing 
the  simplicity  of  Colonial 
planning 


SECOND  FLOOR. 


36 


The  Country  House 


feasible,  and  have  also  considerable  wall  space,  which  is  of  course  an 


essential. 

The  fireplaces  of  the  dining  room,  reception  room  and  alcove  are  made  wide 
enough  to  take  a lour-foot  log;  that  of  the  hall  has  a three-foot  opening. 

In  considering  the  general  arrangement  of  the  house  and  the  relation  of 
one  room  to  another,  we  naturally  begin  with  the  entrance.  The  north  vestibule 
is  shown  in  a projection;  it  might  well,  and  perhaps  better,  be  within  the  line 
of  the  main  house;  it  is  a matter  of  taste.  It  is,  however,  provided  with  a 
carriage  stoop  and  horse  block  and  should  be  surmounted  by  a hood.  To  the  rear 
of  the  vestibule  is  a combination  of  passage  and  closet  under  the  front  stairs 

which  allows  of  easy 
access  to  the  toilet 
as  well  as  hanging 
room  for  clothing 
at  the  back  of  the 
chimney.  You  can 
enter  at  once  into 
the  reception  room, 
or  by  the  passage, 
hall,  and  west  vesti- 
bule gain  access  to 
the  garden.  It  is 
through  this  en- 
trance that  guests 
would  naturally 
enter,  and,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  plan,  it 
is  easy  of  access 
from  the  kitchen  and 
yet  well  enough  shut 
off  by  doors  to  make 
it  difficult  even  for 
the  odour  of  cab- 
bage to  escape  by 
that  route. 

The  west  vesti- 
bule, which  opens 
upon  the  garden,  is 
in  reality  the  family 
entrance,  for  it  is 
more  than  likely  that 
much  of  this  traffic 
will  be  through  the 
garden.  There  are 
large  windows  in  its 
two  walls  to  allow 


A stucco  house  at  Cohasset,  Mass.,  designed  on  Italian  lines.  John  Lavelle,  architect 


37 


Planning  the  House 

of  the  lighting  of  the  hall,  and  a box  seat  to  hold  footwear.  It  would  be  better 
if  this  seat  were  located  under  the  inside  window  and  a door  cut  through  the 
south  wall  so  as  to  give  access  to  the  screened  piazza,  thus  avoiding  the  passage 
through  the  dining 
room  for  ordinary 
use.  The  closet  off 
the  vestibule  offers 
hanging  room  for 
over  - garments,  as 
well  as  a passage 
from  the  living  room 
to  the  hall.  This 
isolates  the  reception 
room  and  makes  it 
unnecessary  to  pass 
through  it  in  going 
from  one  part  of  the 
house  to  another. 

The  piazza  area 
is  not  extraordi- 
narily large,  because 
in  its  consideration 

the  garden  is  made  to  count  as  an  open  piazza,  the  roofed-in  structure  being  con- 
sidered more  from  the  point  of  an  open-air  dining  room.  If  more  be  desired, 
however,  it  can  readily  be  carried  around  the  south  side  of  the  dining  room. 
Although  we  have  considered  screens  in  this  connection,  it  is  not  really 
necessary,  as  there  are  very  few  mosquitos  in  this  locality.  It  is  good  planning, 
however,  to  provide  against  them,  for  occasionally  a damp,  warm  season  will 
liven  up  the  pests  considerably. 

The  dining  room  has  access  to  the  piazza  through  a French  window,  making 
it  possible  to  set  a table  out  of  doors.  Its  connection  with  the  kitchen  is 
through  the  china  closet,  which  arrangement,  giving  two  doors  in  the  interval, 
should  in  a measure  keep  the  kitchen  door  from  the  rest  of  the  house.  The 
buffet  is  built  in  between  the  dining  room  and  the  china  closet,  with  a slide  between. 

The  pantry  is  placed  on  the  southeast  corner,  and  provided  with  two 
windows  so  that  it  may  get  what  air  there  is  stirring. 

The  kitchen  is  large  and  its  outside  walls  are  practically  all  glass.  The  sink 
is  set  in  the  centre  of  a 13-foot  shelf,  giving  ample  room  on  either  side.  There  is 
also  room  for  a table  near  the  cellarway  and  a swinging  shelf  next  the  dining  room. 
The  kitchen  is  also  handy  to  the  back  door,  the  back  and  cellar  stairs  and  the  two 
front  doors,  and  has  a clothes  closet  of  its  own  in  the  back  hall.  On  hot  and  close 
days  the  opening  of  the  china  closet  door  and  window,  the  north  kitchen  window  and 
the  hall  and  back  doors  will  give  a relieving  cross-current  of  air.  The  back  stairs,  hav- 
ing a door  at  the  foot,  will  prevent  the  kitchen  odours  from  besieging  the  second  story. 

The  servants’  hall,  being  across  the  hallway,  is  within  reach  of  the  kitchen 
and.  has  a good  easterly  outlook. 


Entrance  side  of  Cohasset  house 


38 


The  Country  House 


1 he  bath  and  toilet  are  separate,  an  evident  matter  of  convenience, 
are  calculated  for  the  family  use.  Although  there  is  room 


A gambrel-roofed  Colonial  house  at  Kingston, 
N.  Y.  Wilson  Eyre,  architect 


1 hese 

for  two  bathrooms  on 
the  second  story,  it 
seems  wise  to  pro- 
vide for  a tub  below 
as  an  extra.  The 
servants’  toilet 
should  be  located  in 
the  basement  and 
their  bath  in  the 
attic. 

1 he  large  living 
hall  is  somewhat 
higher  studded  than 
the  other  rooms,  and 
in  addition  is  fin- 
ished into  the  roof. 
This  roof  is  sup- 
ported by  four  rough- 
hewn  and  simple 
trusses.  1 here  are 
provisions  for  four 
w i n d o w seats  in 
bays,  which  can  well  be  boxed  in  and 
provided  with  hinged  covers.  I here 
is  a step  suggested  between  this  room 
and  the  alcove.  It  was  done  with  the 
idea  of  a tile  floor,  and  as  the  alcove  is 
an  end  motive  and  really  a nook,  the 
usual  rule  regarding  such  steps  may  per- 
haps be  overruled. 

The  alcove  is  provided  with  a well- 
lighted  seat  and  a large  fireplace.  A 
sort  of  bookstall  is  built  in  back  of 
the  seat,  which  in  reality  makes  a 
reading  room  of  the  alcove.  As  the 
demand  for  a large  library  in  a country 
house  is  a rarity,  the  shelf  room  shown 
is  in  all  probability  sufficient. 

The  L to  the  north  has  been  utilised 
as  a large  photographic  dark  room  in 
view  of  the  beauty  of  the  country  in 
which  the  site  is  located  and  the  great 
temptation,  consequently,  to  make 
studies  of  it.  This  is  perhaps  larger 
than  is  necessary,  and  the  portion  next 


Planning  the  House  39 

the  chimney  might  well  be  made  into  a storeroom.  Access  to  it  is  had  through 
the  living  hall  as  well  as  from  the  outside. 

Before  taking  up  the  possibilities  of  the  second  floor  some  brief  outline  of 
the  outside  conditions  may  not  be  out  of  place  here. 

Owing  to  the  wild  and  irregular  outlay  of  the  plot,  any  thought  of  the 
ordinary  garden  has  been  abandoned;  and,  besides,  we  do  not  wish  it  to  be  too 
elaborate.  It  is  true  that  an  informal  rock  garden,  based,  perhaps,  on  the 
Japanese,  might  well  be  used  if  it  were  not  for  the  very  suggestive  shape  of  the 
plan  1 he  idea  of  putting  the  garden  into  the  angle  of  the  house,  thus  squaring  it 
up  and  making  a terrace  out  of  it,  seems  on  the  whole  a good  one.  Its  plan 
is  simple,  and  not  too  elaborate  to  be  taken  care  of  by  the  lady  of  the  house — 
that  is,  in  a large  measure.  We  should  not  think  of  inflicting  the  mower  upon 
her,  but  the  flowers  are  another  matter.  A sun  dial  stands  at  the  intersection 
of  the  cross  paths,  bordering  which  are  flower  beds.  A small  hedge  encloses  the 
outer  sides  of  the  four  small  grass  plots,  and  a hedge  is  planted  against  the 
south  wall  of  the  living  room,  bordering  the  main  walk.  At  the  intersections  of  the 
flower  beds  and  the  hedge  are  placed  eight  Roman  pots  filled  with  hydrangea 
or  the  like — anything  which  will  make  distinct  spots.  Although  the  garden 
is  on  formal  lines,  the  flower  treatment  should  be  irregular  in  detail,  to 
harmonise  with  the  landscape. 

The  terrace  is  enclosed  by  a wall  having  in  it  seats  opposite  the  cross  walks. 
I he  entrance  to  it  is  through  an  arch  in  the  extension  of  the  westerly  wall  of  the 
alcove.  This  entrance  might  well  be  provided  with  a stile  to  keep  the  sheep  out 
of  the  flower  beds. 

The  utilisation  of  small  spruce  and  cedars,  in  moderation,  about  the  house 
is  to  be  considered.  The  cedar  hedge  between  the  main  approach  and  service 
entrance  is  advisable. 

Instead  of  making  walks  through  the  short-clipped  grass,  flat  stepping  stones, 
after  the  manner  of  the  Japanese,  will  be  found  more  effective  and  in  character 
with  the  scattered  rocks.  Edges  to  drives  and  paths  could  well  be  made  of  loose 
stone  as  indicated. 

The  second  story  has  not  been  studied  out  to  scale,  but  the  first  floor  gives 
a fairly  good  idea  of  what  it  might  be.  There  are  chambers  over  the  westerly 
part  of  the  dining  room,  the  hall  and  vestibule,  the  kitchen,  the  servants’  hall  and 
the  reception  room.  The  kitchen  chamber  can  have  a small  dressing  room  over  the 
pantry  and  the  dining-room  chamber  one  over  the  easterly  part  of  the  dining 
room.  The  bathroom  can  be  placed  over  the  china  closet,  with  a door  into  each 
dressing  room.  The  wall  between  the  bath  and  servants’  hall  should  extend  up 
to  the  second  story,  and  continue  south  to  form  the  east  side  of  the  upper  hall- 
way. The  space  over  the  first-story  bathroom  should  be  left  open  into  the  hall- 
way to  light  it.  A bathroom  should  be  over  the  front  entrance,  with  doors 
into  the  hallway  and  the  reception-room  chamber.  As  the  living  hall  is  quite 
high,  a bay  could  be  made  in  the  reception-room  chamber,  overlooking  it. 
There  can  be  two  servants’  rooms  in  the  attic,  one  in  the  north  and  one  in  the 
south  gable. 

In  the  second  story  of  the  L and  over  the  dark  room  can  be  a studio. 


40 


The  Country  House 


For  this  reason  the  walls  have  been  made  at  an  angle  with  the  rest  of  the 
house,  so  as  to  get  the  straight  north  light.  This  could  be  a billiard  room  or  a 
den  if  desired.  Off  this  room  and  over  the  alcove  can  be  made  a balcony,  which 

might  serve  as  a 
music  gallery  in 
event  of  a dance. 

As  this  is  the 
country  of  rough 
stone,  it  seems  that 
it  would  be  a most 
excellent  material  for 
the  house  walls.  If 
laid  in  white  mortar 
with  not  too  deep  a 
joint,  so  that  the 
white  of  the  mortar 
shall  count,  its  effect 
would  be  excellent. 

As  to  the  general 
exterior,  the  small 
sketch  shows  what 
might  well  be  done 
to  make  a simple  big 
and  solid  structure, 
not  too  elaborate  for 
the  place.  The  pitch  of  the  eaves  sug- 
gests one  type  of  Swiss  chalet. 

And  now  with  these  preliminary 
studies  we  are  ready  for  the  architect. 
Some  minor  changes  will  have  to  be 
made — we  must  expect  that.  We  have 
made  a beginning,  however — a fairly 
good  beginning,  perhaps,  because  it  is 
in  the  right  direction.  We  have  some- 
thing to  work  on,  something  to  pull 
to  pieces,  and  without  that  we  have 
nothing  at  all.  Of  course  there  are 
other  solutions  of  the  problem  — that 
we  granted  at  the  start.  This  one 
may  not  suit  you.  If  it  does  not,  take 
a bit  of  paper  and  try  it  yourself;  it  is  good  practice. 

It  is  not  the  writer’s  intention  to  go  into  the  question  of  style;  that  is  a 
long  road~and_a  half  understanding  of  it  would  do  moreTharm  than  goodT  The 
pictures  shown  illustrate  tHe~  diversity  of  style,  and  the  architect"  is  the  one  to 
carry  out  this  side  of  the  problem.  Of  exteriors,  in  a general  way,  without 
regard  to  style,  these  few  words  might  be  said:  Be  simple  and  truthful  in 


An  eighl-room  gardener’s  cot- 
tage on  a large  estate  near 
Boston.  Cost  about  $6,000. 
Coolidge  & Carlson,  architects 


4i 


Planning  the  House 

your  exterior,  as  you  should  be  with  your  plan,  and  let  the  former  be  an  honest 
interpretation  of  the  latter.  Keep  the  roof  simple;  the  more  valleys  the  more 
leaks.  Keep  the  plan  simple;  the  more  angles  the  more  costly,  as  the  plan 
naturally  expresses  itself  in  the  exterior.  Make  your  material  count  for  that 
material  and  no  other;  the  slight  suggestion  is  permissible,  but  the  out-and-out 
attempt  to  deceive  is  bad;  the  grained  door  and  imitation  stone  and  marble  come 
under  this  head.  We  may  make  a shingle  roof  to  suggest  the  English  thatch,  or 
treat  our  wooden  siding  in  the  form  of  stone,  but  the  first  gives  the  line  only  and 
is  so  slight  as  not  to  deceive  as  to  material,  while  the  latter  is  not  marbled. 

In  conclusion,  remember  that  the  best  design  is  that  which  shows  no  effort 
to  make  itself  interesting;  the  excess  of  ornament  does  not  necessarily  mean  good 
design  (in  fact  quite  the  contrary),  nor  the  absence  of  it  an  inferior  thing; 
and  lastly,  that  it  is  the  simple  thing  that  wears  and  becomes  less  tiresome  from 
constant  use  and  long  association. 


House  of  Gen.  Harrison  Gray  Otis,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  An  example  of  plaster  mission  work 


A modern  Colonist  house  showing  the  hip  roof  “decked  ’’  at  the  top. 


CHAPTER  III 

Construction  of  the  Shell 

I I H the  plot  of  the  house  roughly  measured  and  staked  out,  it  is 
best  to  make  several  soundings  so  that  the  character  of  the 
soil  may  be  definitely  determined.  Clay  is  to  be  avoided  at 
any  cost,  unless  you  can  get  below  it  for  a foundation.  Rocky 
or  ledgy  soil  is  apt  to  be  infested  with  springs  calculated  to 
make  a swimming  tank  of  your  cellar  if  you  are  not  careful. 
This  is  particularly  so  when  the  rock  itself  has  to  be  cut  into, 
as  it  opens  up  veins  and  fissures  likely  to  be  permeated  with  moisture.  Ordinary 
soil,  too,  has  its  ground  water  or.  moist  strata,  which  stands  at  varying  levels 
according  to  the  season.  To  go  below  this  is  to  attempt  to  drain  the  country. 
Don’t  try  it  unless  there  he  a good  chance  to  rid  yourself  of  it.  Soil  elevations 
are  usually  above  ground  water,  and  in  such  cases  perfectly  safe,  as  the  sub- 
strata is  ordinarily  level  or  has  less  curvature  than  the  top  soil,  which  has  been 
exposed  to  washing  and  the  various  untold  actions  during  its  submerged  condition. 

It  is  always  the  best  policy  to  make  the  soundings  where  the  soil  is  supposed 
to  be  the  wettest,  and  to  a depth  below  that  to  which  you  intend  to  dig.  In  this 
way  extreme  conditions  are  tested,  and  some  idea  is  obtained  of  just  how  near 
you  may  be  above  trouble. 

Having  definitely  determined  on  the  location  of  the  house  and  roughly  staked 
out  the  same,  the  first  step  is  to  remove  the  loam  from  the  site  and  to  such  a dis- 

42 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


43 


Outline,  o/ 


from  A to  C' 


66  ft 


Editor-board. 


'ZP*t 


Fig  1.  Showing  the  use  of  batter-boards  in  laying  out  the  house 


tance  from  the  house  as  it  may  be  required  to  grade,  or  at  least  for  ten  feet,  so  that 
it  may  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  working  room.  It  should  be  piled  in  some  con- 
venient place,  where  it  will  be 
undisturbed  and  yet  handy 
for  future  grading. 

Batter  boards  are  then 
set  at  the  house  angles  at  the 
height  of  the  underpinning, 
to  a 1 1 o w of  lines  being 
stretched  across  (see  Fig.  i). 
The  batter  board  consists  of 
strips  of  boards  nailed  hor- 
izontally to  uprights  driven 
firmly  into  the  ground.  They 
are  sometimes  set  about  one- 
half  inch  above  the 
required  height  so 
that  the  various  lines 
'-..c  can  be  notched 
down  to  the  requir- 
ed level.  First  the 
principal  wall  line 
is  established  and 

the  underpinning  and  foundation  set  off  from  these.  In  the  case  of  the  notches, 
the  line  is  held  taut  by  means  of  a brick  or  stone  as  a weight  at  either  end;  if 
nails  are  driven  into  the  batter  boards,  to  serve  instead  of  notches,  the  lines  are 
made  fast  to  these  and  pulled  as  taut  as  possible. 

It  is  always 
better  to  have  a sur- 
veyor lay  out  the 
house.  He  is  in  the 
habit  of  being  care- 
ful and  accurate, 
and  your  edifice  is 
less  apt  to  be  out 
of  square  or  out  of 
level  than  if  laid  out 
by  another. 

The  excavation 
for  the  cellar  should 
be  made  at  least  8 
inches  larger  all 
around  than  the 
outside  of  the  foun- 
dation wall.  This  „ , d , d aii  mv  a * i . . , . 

House  at  Lawrence  Park,  Bronxville,  N.  Y.  A simple  and  vigorous  example  of  stone  and 
Will  allow  for  the  shingle  work,  with  low-pitched  hip  roof.  Wm.  A.  Bates,  architect 


44 


The  Country  House 

pointing  of  the  wall  on  the  outside,  and  also  a space  to  be  filled  with  sand  or 
gravel  for  the  carrying  off  of  water  from  the  foundation. 

The  excavation  should  be  made  to  a depth  which  will  insure  a cellar  head 
room  of  8 feet  at  least  (see  Fig.  2).  The  ordinary  house,  set  on  a level,  requires 
2\  feet  of  underpinning  above  grade.  If  set  on  a side  hill  it  may  reduce  the 
uphill  side;  the  total  light  and  air  area  should  not,  however,  be  less  than  in  the 
level  example. 

The  foundation  trench  should  be  2 feet  at  least  below  the  cellar  level  and 
of  a width  determined  by  the  width  of  the  building  wall,  which,  in  turn, 
depends  on  the  weight  of  the  structure  and  character  of  the  soil.  In  case  the 
cellar  bottom  is  within  reasonable  distance  of  a known  ledge,  it  is  well  to  exca- 
vate the  foundation  trench  to  it  so  that  an  absolutely  firm  footing  may  be  assured. 
If  this  extra  depth  is  enough  to  warrant  it,  the  width  of  the  trench  will  have  to 
be  increased  on  the  inside  to  allow  the  mason  access  to  his  work. 

The  foundation,  usually  of  stone,  is  sometimes  built  of  brick.  Brick,  how- 
ever, is  porous  and  is  apt  to  chip  and  crumble  with  freezing,  while  the  rough 
field  stone  withstands  moisture  and  wears  better. 

Foundations  should  be  laid  in  cement  mortar,  brought  to  a smooth  face 
inside  and  out  and  thoroughly  pointed  on  both.  I his  repels  moisture  and  vermin 
alike,  whereas  the  common  dry  wall  with  only  one  face  and  rough  projecting 
stones  on  the  back  invites  trouble.  This  common  form  of  wall  is  little  more  than 
useless.  Being  open  at  the  back,  the  water  passes  into  it,  loosens  the  flimsy  point- 
ing and  comes  through  into  the  cellar.  The  wet  wall  freezes  and,  aided  by  the 
projecting  levers  on  the  back,  heaves  itself  out  of  shape.  After  the  water  and 
frost  come  the  rats,  and  it  is  then  simply  a question  of  how  long  the  wall  will 
stand  the  combined  inroads  of  these  three. 

The  thickness  of  the  foundation  wall  depends  entirely,  as  already  stated,  on 
the  weight  it  has  to  carry  and  the  climatic  conditions.  The  ordinary  wall  in  New 
York  and  Boston  is  built  of  an  even  20-inch  thickness.  In  Bangor,  Maine,  and 
the  vicinity  foundations  are  built  3 feet  at  the  bottom,  tapering  to  20  or  24 
inches  at  the  top.  This  is  not  merely  a localism;  the  20-inch  wall  has  been  tried 
and  proved  a failure. 

Sometimes  it  may  be  advisable  to  line  up  the  inner  side  of  the  foundation 
with  brickwork.  In  this  case  it  should  be  on  a line  with  the  inside  of  the  under- 
pinning so  as  to  present  one  even  surface,  and  it  should  be  tied  into  the  stonework 
by  being  built  with  it. 

Underneath  all  foundations  a footing  course  should  be  laid.  This  should  pro- 
ject beyond  the  outside  of  the  foundation  several  inches  on  either  side.  1 he 
amount  of  this  projection  as  well  as  the  depth  is  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  superstructure  and  the  soil.  Six  inches  projection  on  either  side  and  per- 
haps a foot  thick  is  the  average.  There  are  two  common  ways  of  building  a 
footing  course.  The  simpler  and  less  expensive  form  is  to  fill  the  footing  trench 
with  loose  stone,  laid  dry,  on  which  the  foundation  is  raised.  The  loose  footing 
in  this  case  serves  as  a drain  for  such  water  as  may  find  its  way  through  to  the 
cellar  wall;  the  water  is  carried  off  in  like  manner  through  a blind  drain  of  loose 
stones. 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


45 


'Floor-timber 


^Tloorinff 


'Floor-limber 


In  the  case  of  a brick  or  stone  structure,  the  footing  is  made  of  large  regular 
stones,  each  of  which  is  of  the  full  width.  The  drain  may  be  a porous  pipe 
laid  outside  the  footing  (see  Fig.  2),  or  instead  of  the  pipe  broken  stone  can  be 
substituted. 

It  is  always  best  that  the  top  of  the  footing  course  be  at  least  6 inches  below 
the  top  of  the  cement  bottom  to  insure  the  latter  a dry  surface. 

All  stone  work  should  be  well  bonded;  that  is,  each  course  or  layer  of  stone 
should  break  joints  with  the  course  below  it.  This  breaking  of  joints  should  be 
generous.  In  order  to  tie 
the  wall  together  in  its 
width  headers  are  used. 

These  are  simply  ordinary 
long  stones,  set  with  the 
length  across  the  wall. 

The  courses  should  occur 
frequently,  say  every  3 feet. 

A good  mason  will  see  to 
it  that  they  do.  In  this 
way  a portion  of  the  wall 
cannot  drop  out  at  the 
bottom  and  cause  trouble 
to  the  superstructure.  The 
whole  ties  together 
solid  mass. 

The  cement 
used  for  the  founda- 
tion and  all  such 
below-ground  work 
should  consist  of  one 
part  best  cement 
to  two  parts  clean, 
sharp  sand.  This 
should  be  mixed 
fresh  as  required, 
and  not  allowed  to 
lie.  A mortar  con- 
sisting of  one  part 
lime,  one  part  ce- 
ment and  two  parts 
clean,  sharp  sand  is 
good,  but  this  mix- 
ture is  not  as  strong 
as  the  cement  alone. 

Concrete  for  the  cellar  bottom  should  consist  of  one  part  best  cement,  two 
parts  clean,  sharp  sand  and  three  parts  screened  pebbles  or  very  small  stones. 
This  should  be  at  least  3 inches  thick  (4  is  better)  and  be  finished  with  a skim 


Water- table 


Lath  v 
"Plaster 


Lath  Zj 
Plaster 


board 


Base 


Concrete, 


a.  Brick  fire  stop 

b.  Sunk  girts 

c.  Furring 


Fig.  2.  Sections  showing  wood  and  brick  construction 

d.  Quarter  round  g.  Vaulting  or  air  space 

e.  Part  of  sill  h.  Fire  stop 

f.  Drain  k.  Flashing 


46  The  Country  House 

coat  of  cement.  It  is  best  to  make  the  flooring  with  a slight  drain  about  the  out- 
side wall  (see  Fig.  2),  with  a trap  at  the  lower  end  entering  the  drain.  This 
drain  should  on  no  account  enter  the  sewer  or  house  drain.  There  is  no  need  of 
extending  the  area  of  possible  trouble  any  further  than  is  necessary.  It  is  not 
probable  that  with  the  ordinary  precautions  water  will  enter  the  cellar,  but  if  it 
should  this  will  be  found  of  much  value. 

Mortar  for  exposed  brickwork  or  stonework  should  consist  of  one  part  best 
cement,  one  part  lime  and  two  parts  clear  sharp  sand.  Pure  lime  mortar  may 
answer,  but  the  above  is  better. 

The  underpinning,  the  portion  of  wall  between  the  foundation  and  the  first 
floor,  is,  in  the  ordinary  frame  dwelling,  of  brick.  This  should  be  laid  close  with 

struck  joints,  having 
a course  of  headers 
every  sixth  course; 
this  effectively  ties 
the  wall  together.  A 
“header”  brick  is 
one  laid  with  the 
end  or  head  to  the 
weather;  its 
extends  into  the 
wall,  forming  what 
is  termed  a “bond” 
with  the  rest  of  the 
work.  The  “stretch- 
er” brick  is  laid  in 
the  ordinary  way, 
length  to  the 
weather. 

Often  the  un- 
derpinning is  rough 
or  cut  stone,  which 
is  laid  in  the  manner 
of  its  kind. 

The  cellar  piers  are  usually  built  of  brick,  one  foot  square,  from  a stone  foot- 
ing below  the  cellar  level,  and  provided  with  iron  caps.  Sometimes  iron  posts 
are  substituted,  and  even  4-inch  iron  piping  has  been  used  with  success  on  light 
structures.  The  iron  cap  is  essential,  however,  for  the  secure  support  of  the  girder, 
since  it  does  not  shrink  as  does  the  ordinary  wooden  cap.  The  iron  post  has  the 
advantage  of  less  bulk  than  the  brick  pier  without  corresponding  loss  of 
strength,  which  is  often  a very  great  consideration. 

I he  framing  of  a house  is  an  important  consideration.  It  should  not  only 
hold  together  but  be  rigid  as  well.  The  frame  that  will  jar  when  the  baby  falls 
off  the  divan  is  not  a rigid  frame.  The  form  of  construction  may  have  varying 
details  common  to  various  constructionists,  but  its  main  principles  are  substantially 
the  same. 


Central  motive  of  the  Hammond  House,  Annapolis,  Md.  Hip  roof  with  pediment  projection. 
The  projecting  courses  between  stories  emphasise  the  floor  line 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


47 


The  braced  frame  is  the  old-fashioned  form  of  our  ancestors.  Being 
usually  made  of  spruce,  its  timber  dimensions  are  less  than  were  those  of  the 
old  oak  frames,  in  which  the 


corner  posts  projected  into  the 
room. 

The  sill,  the  foundation 
member  of  the  frame,  is  usu- 
ally of  6 x 8-inch  stock,  set 
upon  the  underpinning  2 
inches  back  from  its  outer 
face.  Commonly  it  is  merely 
laid  there,  but  it  is  far  better 
that  it  be  bedded  in  mortar 
to  shut  out  any  draft  which 
may  find  access  through  slight 
inequalities  of  the  wall.  In 
some  instances  the  sill  is  bolt- 
ed to  the  foundation,  the 
bolts  being  built  into  the  wall 
and  projecting  above  it 
through  the  sill;  nuts  and 
washers  are  then  affixed  from 
the  top.  This  will  prevent 
the  superstructure  from  taking 
French  leave,  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  foundation. 

The  sill  shown  in  Figs.  2 
and  3 is  made  up  of  a 4x8 
and  a 2x6  spiked  together. 

This  is  done  for  certain  rea- 
sons which  will  be  explained 
later. 

The  common  method  of 
joining  the  intersecting  angles 
of  the  sill  is  to  “halve”  them 
together.  A mortise  is  cut 
through  the  two  halves  to 
allow  the  tenon  or  tongue  of 
the  post  to  enter.  The  halved 
sill  is  then  spiked  together, 
and  the  post,  when  in  place, 
secured  by  a wooden  pin  pass- 
ing through  the  sill  and  tenon. 

The  ordinary  post  is  of 

4x8  stock.  We  prefer  the  post  made  up  of  34x8  and  4x4  (see  Fig.  3). 


Plain 


Floor-limber 
3.  x /o 


ledger- board 


Head  Stud. 


is  as  strong  one  way  as  the  other  and  will 


This 

stand  cutting  away  for  brace,  girts 


48  The  Country  House 

etc.,  better  than  will  the  single  stick.  The  two  sticks,  having  different  grains, 
tend  to  an  increase  of  strength  in  their  combination. 

The  sunk  girt  is  placed  at  a height  sufficient  to  receive  the  ends  of  the 
second-floor  timbers  upon  it,  and  is  framed  into  the  posts  and  pinned.  The  raised 
girt  is  set  on  a level  with  the  top  of  the  floor  timbers  and,  like  the  sunk  girt, 
framed  into  the  posts.  Both  girts  are  commonly  4x8  sticks. 

I he  plate,  the  capping  member  of 
the  wall  frame,  is  ordinarily  4x6,  and 
this  is  small  enough.  Like  the  sill,  it  is 
halved  at  the  angles  and  mortised  to 
receive  the  post.  It  may  be  made  up 
of  two  2x6  pieces  spiked  together,  which 
form  has  its  advantages. 

The  braces  have  an  obvious  office 
— they  preserve  the  plumb  and  rigidity 
of  the  frame.  The  braced  frame,  un- 
like the  balloon  frame,  can  stand  alone, 
and  is  complete  in  itself  without  the  aid 
of  temporary  support.  It  is  always  ad- 
visable, in  instances  where  the  braces 
are  framed  into  a made-up  sill  or  post, 
to  “lag  bolt’’  the  members  of  the  made- 
up  timber  together;  the  strain  is  such 
that  ordinary  nailing  is  apt  to  loosen 
(see  Fig.  3). 

1 he  ledger  board  which  supports 
the  attic  floor  timbers  is  of  i-inch 
stock  let  into  the  inner  side  of  the 
studding.  In  comparison  with  the  girts 
it  appears  weak,  but  it  is  really  stronger 
than  it  looks.  It  is  held  firmly  on 
edge;  thus  its  depth,  which  is  its 
strength,  is  not  allowed  to  become  impaired  by  twisting.  This  and  the  support 
afforded  by  cutting  into  the  studs  make  it  adequate  for  the  purpose. 

Window  and  door  studs,  usually  4x4,  can  be  made  up  of  two  pieces  of 
ordinary  studding,  but  the  single  stick  is  perhaps  better  for  the  braced  frame. 
They  are  framed  in,  at  each  end,  to  the  horizontal  members. 

The  head  stud,  which  forms  the  top  of  the  window  or  door  opening, 
should  be  framed  on  as  the  tie  beam  of  a miniature  truss,  which,  coming  under 
girts  and  plate,  helps  to  support  them,  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  the  head 
stud  from  sagging  and  bearing  on  the  door  or  window  frames,  which  would  happen 
were  the  truss  omitted.  Of  course,  for  the  ordinary  opening,  the  girt  would 
change  but  very  slightly,  if  at  all;  yet  the  brace  makes  a more  rigid  structure, 
and  one  less  liable  to  jar,  which  is  the  aim  of  good  construction. 

The  sill  stud  receives  the  weight  of  the  window,  and  should  be  made  secure. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  it  should  be  framed  in.  An  ordinary  piece  of  boarding 


Fig.  4.  Balloon  framings 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


49 


under  each  end,  nailed  to  the  upright  frame  stud  with  the  common  “jack” 
or  short  studs  between,  will  support  it. 

Common  studs  are  usually  2x4  and  are  seldom  framed  into  the  larger 
timbers,  although  this  may  be  done.  If  securely  nailed  they  wTill  be  found  strong 
enough.  If  they  are  to  be  framed  in,  the  mortise  should  be  but  slight,  so  as  not  to 
cut  away  too  much  wood  from  the  large  timbers.  In  such  cases,  too,  the  made- 
up  sill  (see  Fig.  3)  will  be  of  advantage,  as  all  the  mortises  can  be  cut  before 
it  is  spiked  to  the  4x8;  and  as  these  mortises  can  be  cut  through  it,  the  actual 
labour  is  less. 

In  a large  house  it  may  be  advisable  to  make  the  common  studding  2x5.  In 
such  a case  the  upright  sticks  should  be  increased  accordingly. 

Studs  are  commonly  set  16  inches  on  centres.  If  more  rigid  work  is  re- 
quired, they  can  be  12  inches  on  centres.  As  ordinary  laths  are  4 feet  in  length, 
and  as  it  is  desirable  to  lay  them  without  any  more  cutting  than  is  absolutely 
necessary,  one  or  the  other  of  these  spacings  should  be  adhered  to  with  accuracy. 

Properly  speaking,  the  balloon  frame  is  one  in  which  the  frame  alone  is  not 
self-supporting,  and  the  studding  runs  continuously  from  the  sill  to  the  plate. 
No  braces  are  used  except  temporary  ones;  the  outside  boarding,  laid  diagonally, 
is  depended  upon  to  hold  the  frame  to- 
gether and  in  shape.  It  is  not  advis- 
able, however,  to  construct  a balloon 
frame  without  the  brace  in  some  form 
or  other.  Hence  the  “long  brace”  is 
employed  in  the  better  work  of  this  sort. 

Fig  4 shows  a section  of  balloon 
framing  with  a good  form  of  bracing. 

The  sill  is  laid  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  posts,  which  are  usually  simply 
nailed  at  the  foot,  should  be  mortised 
into  the  sill  and  held  in  a perpendicular 
position  by  the  use  of  temporary  diag- 
onal stays.  I he  window  and  door  studs 
are  made  up  of  two  2x4  studs,  one  of 
which  should  be  mortised  into  the  sill. 

The  common  studs  are  securely  nailed 
at  the  foot  and  carried  up  to  irregular 
heights,  spaced  and  held  by  tempo- 
rary stays,  as  already  stated.  The  first 
floor  timbers  are  set  in  place  and  enough 
of  the  under  floor  covering  laid  loosely 
upon  them  to  work  on.  The  “false 
girt,”  which  is  the  same  as  the  “ledger 
board”  of  the  braced  frame,  is  then  let 
into  the  inside  of  the  studs,  and  the 
second-floor  timbers  put  in  place  and  floor  boards  laid  loosely  upon  them.  The 
height  of  the  plate  is  then  calculated  and  the  uprights  cut  off  or  spliced  out  to 


Showing  rough  stuccco  wails,  with  pitch  roof  and  overhanging 
gable 


50 


The  Country  House 


meet  it.  A 2 x 6 timber  is  then  nailed  across  the  top  and  another  laid  upon  it, 
breaking  joints  at  the  corners;  this  forms  the  plate.  As  is  often  the  case,  the 
attic  floor  timbers  are  laid  on  the  plate,  although  the  “ledger  board”  can  be  used 
if  a higher  story  is  desired. 

After  the  rough  skeleton  has  been  erected,  and  prior  to  boarding  in,  the  “long 

braces”  are  set  in 
place  and  securely 
spiked  to  all  points 
of  bearing.  They 
are  of  2-inch  stock, 
let  into  the  outside 
of  the  frame,  and 
are  made  as  long  as 
possible.  The  ex- 
ample shown  is  a 
common  and  awk- 
ward corner  in 
which  the  simple 
form  of  bracing  is 
utterly  out  of  the 
question.  If  the 
window  “a”  were 
not  there  the  straight 
brace  could  he  used 
as  shown  by  “b.” 
As  it  is,  the  other 
brace  from  the  post 
to  the  plate  is  neces- 
sary. The  joint  at 

“c”  is  halved  and  consequently  weakens  the  brace;  it  should  be  reinforced  by 
a 2-inch  strip  at  the  hack.  The  cleats  “d”  are  used  to  keep  the  brace  from 
slipping.  The  latter  is  not  framed  in  at  the  ends. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  head  and  sill  studs,  like  the  upright  window 
studs,  are  made  up  (securely  nailed  together).  I his  method,  if  properly  car- 
ried out,  is  strong,  effective  and  economical  inasmuch  as  it  often  uses  up  short 


“Maxwell  Court,”  Rockville,  Conn.  An  excellent  example  of  clean  and  healthy  design. 
The  low  hip  roof  is  decked  to  reduce  the  height,  and  thus  add  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  long 
lines.  Charles  A.  Platt,  architect 


pieces  of  studding  that  are  too  long  for  bridging. 

The  balloon  frame,  however,  has  its  limitations.  Window  and  door  openings 
should  come  over  one  another,  otherwise  the  framing  becomes  much  weakened  and 
complicated.  The  fact  that  a window  is  omitted  in  the  motive  does  not  matter. 
If  the  window  “a”  were  omitted,  the  double  studding  need  not  of  necessity 
run  to  the  height  of  the  plate.  The  ordinary  stud  is  merely  reinforced  up  to 
the  false  girt.  This  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  made-up  window  stud. 

Prior  to  boarding  in  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  false  girt  and  plate  are 
straight  and  true.  The  balloon  frame  at  this  stage  is  apt  to  be  very  shaky, 
having  no  heavy  girts  to  keep  the  wall  in  line.  This  straightening  process  is 
effected  by  diagonal  braces  laid  flat  on  the  second  and  third  floor  timbers  or  up- 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


5i 


Par/,  ben  ffrU 


Cellar  13 earn 


Sttiitn  of  F/oonng  reuerjed.  Co  j/tou) 


trussed  Mrft'i/en 


Plate 


Jpiked  to  Ttafter 


Ledger- bean/  Jib 
lag  bitted  te  Par/*' 


mer 


Trusted  fbetific.  1 
unsupported, 
treat  felon) 


Erick  fire  stops 
indicated  bu 
Stipple 


rioor ■ timber 


Floor-  Umber  2.  x 


should  be  laid 


right  braces  from  the  floor  to  the  member  in  question.  These  braces  should 
remain  in  place  until  the  permanent  braces  are  substituted,  d he  outside  board- 
ing, the  under  floors  laid  diagonally,  the  braced  partition  and  the  partition  bind- 
ings are  effective  agents  to  the  desired  end. 

It  is  important  that  the  boarding  in  of  a balloon  frame 
diagonally,  as  it  is 
a most  effective 
brace  in  itself.  If 

1 t s direction  be 
changed  several 
times  on  the  same 
wall  surface  its  ef- 
fectiveness will  be 
greatly  increased. 

Ordinary  floor 
timbers  are  of 

2 x 10  stock;  this, 
of  course,  in  cases 
where  they  can  be 
supported  without 
too  great  a span. 

Lower  floors  are, 
under  ordinary 
circumstances,  eas- 
ily supported  on 
girders  and  piers 
in  the  basement; 
other  floors,  how- 
ever, must  be  made 
self-supporting.  It 
is  better  to  lean 
toward  the  side  of 
strength  and  rig- 
idity than  to  cal- 
culate too  closely. 

It  is  not  only  that  a floor  will  bear  the  weight  imposed  upon  it,  but  that  it  will 
do  so  without  too  much  sag  and  will  not  give.  Such  things  tend  to  crack  and  dis- 
lodge the  plastering  and  make  a spring-board  of  the  house  in  general.  We  have 
advanced  beyond  the  Colonial  methods,  in  which  the  timbers,  though  bulky,  were 
comparatively  slight  in  depth.  It  is  the  depth  that  counts.  It  is  safe  to  abide  by 
the  following  rule,  which,  though  it  may  be  slightly  excessive,  is  in  the  right 
direction.  For  a 12-foot  space  or  under,  use  2 x 10  spruce  timbers,  set  16 
inches  on  centres  and  cross-bridged  two  to  three  times. 

For  12  to  15  foot  span  use  2 x 10  spruce  timbers,  set  16  inches  on  centres, 
and  every  other  timber  “doubled”  up  (two  timbers  spiked  together)  and  cross- 
bridged  three  to  four  rows. 


girder 


PArhhon 


Trust  oner  wide  opening 


Another  anti  belter  way 
of  framing  f/eer  f, enter 
and  rafter  at  <2. 


Fig.  5.  Section  through  frame  of  house 


52  The  Country  House 

For  15  to  20  foot  span  use  3x12  Southern  pine  timbers,  set  16  inches  on 
centres,  crowned  one-half  inch,  and  cross-bridged  4 to  6 rows. 

For  20  to  25  foot  span  use  3 x 14  Southern  pine  timbers,  set  16  inches  on 
centres,  crowned  one  inch  at  25  feet,  and  cross-bridged  6 to  8 times. 

A floor  timber  is  “crowned”  by  making  the  centre  slightly  higher  than  the 
ends  and  the  profile  a slight  curve.  This  is  done  to  overcome  a natural  settle- 
ment or  sag,  and  to  prevent  the  floor  from  being  hollow  or  “dished”  in  the  middle. 
Ordinary  short  space  need  not  be  crowned. 

Theoretically  the  floor  timber  sets  on  the  girt  or  partition  head,  without 

alteration  of  any 
sort;  practically,  be- 
cause of  the  varia- 
tion in  depth,  they 
are  sized  or 
notched  at  the  bot- 
tom so  that  the  tops 
will  all  be  at  the 
same  level  when  set 
in  place.  The 
amount  of  cutting 
cut  is  determined  by 
measuring  from  the 
top.  Floor  timbers 
should  be  selected  so 
that  their  crowning 

edges  come  at  the  top.  If  they  have  no  crowning  edges  such  should  be  worked 
out.  I hey  are  framed  or  notched  to  the  sill  and  girder  alike,  their  points 
of  bearing  being  nearly  at  the  same  level.  “F”  in  Fig.  5 shows  the  framing  of 
floor  timbers  into  the  girder,  with  2 inches  of  the  sticks  lapping  at  the  top  so  that 
they  may  be  nailed  together  and  to  the  girder. 

Floor  timbers  are  cross-bridged  at  intervals  not  greater  than  6 feet,  and  fre- 
quently less,  by  the  use  of  1 x 4 strips  set  in  a straight  line  in  a double  row  (see 
Fig.  5).  I hey  are  firmly  nailed  to  the  floor  timbers  by  two  large  nails  in  each 
end,  thus  forming  a sort  of  truss  which  not  only  stiffens  but  distributes  the 
weight  as  well 

Partition  studs  are  usually  2x4  and  spaced  the  same  on  centres  as  are  the 
outside  studs.  They  are  of  one-story  length  only,  and  have  heads  and  soles  or 
their  equivalent  (see  Fig.  5).  Where  set  on  line  with  a girder  they  set  directly 
upon  it,  the  girder  taking  the  place  of  the  sole.  The  head  is  commonly  a 2 x 4 
spruce  stick,  but  it  is  much  better  if  made  of  3x4  Southern  pine. 

The  head  of  a partition  which  receives  the  floor  timbers  should  be  set  at  the 
height  of  the  sunk  girt,  so  that  they  may  be  sized  upon  it  (see  “B,”  Fig.  5). 
If  the  partition  extends  two  stories  or  more,  the  head  of  the  lower  partition  be- 
comes the  sole  of  the  partition  above  it  (see  “A,”  Fig.  5). 

A partition  running  parallel  to  the  floor  timbers  above,  and  extending  only 
one  story,  should  set  under  a floor  timber,  so  that  no  sagging  of  the  floor  shall 


A simple  cottage,  showing  what  can  be  done  with  a combination  of  hip  and  pitch  roofs 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


53 


depress  the  ceiling  furring  and  crack  the  plastering,  as  would  be  probable  if 
the  partition  came  between  the  timbers  (see  “E,”  Fig.  5).  If  it  be  thought 
necessary  to  introduce  a fire  stop  on  the  partition  head  (and  it  is  perhaps  better 
so),  two  beams  should  be  “straddled”  4 inches,  with  straight  bridging  between, 
so  that  the  partition  may  come  in  the  centre  and  the  interval  above  be  filled  with 
brick  and  mortar. 

A partition  running  parallel  to  the  floor  timbers  and  extending  through  it 
should  have  a space  of  2 inches  on  either  side  between  the  studding  and  the 
floor  timbers,  so  that  the  finish  may  be  properly  nailed  (see  “A,”  Fig.  5).  This 
space  is  straight-bridged  and  the  interval  between  the  floor  timbers  is  filled 
with  brick  and  mortar. 

A partition  unsupported  from  below  should  be  trussed  (see  Fig.  5).  If  it  be 
set  across  the  floor  timbers,  the  sole  should  set  on  the  rough  flooring.  If  it  be  set 
with  the  floor  tim- 
bers and  is  light,  the 
floor  timbers  under 
it  should  be  three  in 
number,  separated 
to  admit  2-inch 
straight  bridging 
between  (see  “ D,” 

Fig.  5).  Ordi- 
narily two  floor 
timbers  straddled 
5^  inches  apart  are 
made  to  do  this 
work.  Three  are 
better,  however,  as 
it  takes  but  com- 
paratively little  to 
sag  a floor.  If  the 
partition  be  heavy, 
as  in  the  case  of 
two  stories,  four 
timbers  may  be 
used  (see  “C,” 

Fig.  5).  The  two 
centre  ones  should 
be  spiked  together, 
forming  a sole  for 
the  studding,  and 
the  two  outer  ones 
straight-b  ridged 

and  2 inches  from  the  sole  on  either  side, 
regular  truss  partition  must  be  made. 

Partitions,  as  well  as  outside  walls,  should  be  bridged.  This  can  be  done 


House  at  Bronxville,  N.  Y.,  showing  a large  pitch  roof  with  unusual  dormers.  Walker  & 
Morris,  architects 


If  the  partition  be  very  heavy  a 


54 


The  Country  House 

with  straight  bridging  (see  Fig.  4),  or  better,  by  giving  it  a little  incline,  so 
that  it  may  be  drawn  tighter.  This  last  method  has  a tendency  to  adjust  itself 

to  the  shrinkage  of  the  studding,  even 
if  loosened,  which  advantage  the  straight 
bridging  has  not.  The  weight  of  the 
brick  stops  helps  to  assist  this  (see  Fig. 5). 

The  rcof,  which  ordinarily  is,  and 
should  be,  very  simple,  often  offers  some 
quite  complex  problems  in  framing. 
In  fact  it  is,  perhaps,  in  this  last  form 
the  most  difficult  framing  problem.  We 
shall  deal  with  the  simple  problem  alone, 
even  to  the  exclusion  of  the  dormer, 
which  is  but  a small  edition  of  the  main 
roof  and  the  wall  framing. 

1 he  origin  of  the  pitch  roof  is  very 
old;  it  was  used  by  the  early  Greeks 
and  Romans  entirely.  It  slopes  or 
pitches  away  from  the  ridge  toward  rhe 
two  opposite  sides,  forming  a triangular 
wall  surface,  called  the  gable,  at  either 
end.  When  this  gable  is  detached  from 
the  main  wall,  as  is  the  case  in  Greek 
and  Roman  temples,  by  the  horizontal 
return  of  the  lower  members  of  the  corn- 
ice, it  is  called  a pediment,  and  includes 
the  whole  triangular  motive. 

The  roof  as  we  know  it  is  framed 
with  rafters,  notched  into  the  plates  and 
meeting  at  the  ridge  on  either  side  of  a 
ridge  pole.  The  common  rafter  is  of  2x9  stock;  it  is  not  advisable  to  make 
it  smaller  in  a main  roof,  although  the  small  dormer  rafters  are  often  made  of 
2x4  stock.  To  keep  the  rafters  from  kicking  out  at  the  bottom,  tie  or  collar 
beams  are  run  from  each  rafter  to  the  one  opposite  and  secured  by  spikes.  Thus 
the  tendency  to  force  the  outer  wall  outward  is  obviated.  Ordinarily  the  collar 
beams  are  likewise  the  ceiling  timbers  of  the  attic  rooms.  When  the  attic-floor 
timbers  are  set  on  the  plate  they  make  an  additional  tie. 

With  an  irregular  plan  we  generally  find  the  main  roof  intersected  by  a lesser 
roof  at  right  angles;  the  line  of  this  intersection  is  called  the  valley.  In  fram- 
ing, one  valley  rafter  is  carried  to  the  main  ridge  and  the  other  intersects  it  at  the 
height  of  the  ridge  of  the  smaller  roof.  The  valley  rafter  should  be  heavier 
than  the  common  rafter.  With  the  ordinary  2x9,  it  should  be  2x12;  if  a 
larger  roof,  3 x 12  or  14.  In  the  latter  case  the  common  rafter  is  likely  to  be 
strengthened  also. 

The  hip  roof,  like  the  pitch  roof,  is  composed  of  straight  planes  from  the 
ridge  to  the  eaves,  only  that  instead  of  pitching  two  ways  it  pitches  (in  a square 


Showing  rough  stone  and  shingle  in  combination 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


55 


plan)  four  ways,  being  thus  somewhat  pyramidal  in  form.  In  this  type  the 
gables  are  eliminated  by  the  pitch  of  the  roof.  The  hip  rafters  (those  which 
come  at  the  return  or  intersection  of  the  several  roof  planes)  should  be  heavier 
than  the  common  rafters — practically  of  the  same  size  and  strength  as  the 
valley  rafter. 

This  form  of  roof  is  very  strong  and  is  well  adapted  for  large  houses,  where 
dormers  will  admit  of  enough  lighting  area  for  the  attic,  or  for  small  houses  where 
the  attic  is  used  for  little  else  than  a storeroom,  and  little  light  and  head  room 
are  required. 

The  gambrel  roof,  so  common  in  the  Colonial  farmhouse,  is  most  artistic, 
and  very  practical  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  designed.  It  consists,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  pitch  roof,  of  two  sides  sloping  in  opposite  directions,  but,  un- 
like the  simpler  form,  each  of  its  two  sides  is  made  up  of  two  distinct  pitches. 
Although  these  pitches  vary  and  have  no  rule  to  govern  their  actual  relation, 
still  they  are  always  alike,  in  that  the  lower  pitch  is  comparatively  steep  and 
the  upper  much  flatter  (see  Fig.  5). 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  idea  is  to  eliminate  one  story,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  by  making  the  lower  pitch  steep,  to  gain  considerably  more  space 
and  head  room  than  the  simple  pitch  roof  would  give.  The  lighting  areas  are 
gotten  through  dormers,  and  much  good  small  closet  and  drawer  space  can  be 
had  where  the  lower  walls  are  furred  in. 

The  framing  is  comparatively  simple  (see  Fig.  5).  A plate  is  required  at 
the  intersection  of  the  two  pitches  on  which  the  rafters  rest,  and,  overlapping 
one  another,  are  spliced.  "Ihe  lower  rafters  rest  on  the  plate  proper,  and  often 
in  the  modern  work,  though  not  always,  a short  false  rafter  is  used  to  give  a 
slight  “ kick  ” to  the  eaves.  Ordinarily 
the  lower  pitch  embraces  but  one  story. 

If  it  is  desired  to  include  more,  the 
floor  timbers  are  framed  to  the  rafter 
with  a ledger  board  or  some  similar 
substitute,  every  other  timber  being 
spiked  to  the  rafters  as  a tie  beam.  It 
is  essential  in  this  case  that  the  floor 
timbers  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
roof,  rather  than  parallel  to  it,  thus  find- 
ing a bearing  and  effecting  a strong 
cross  tie  at  the  same  time. 

After  the  framing  of  the  walls  is 
complete  and  any  member  out  of  line 
has  been  braced  or  shored  into  proper 
position,  the  rough  boarding  is  put  on. 

Fbis  is  usually  of  spruce  or  hemlock 
and  should  be  of  i stock,  planed  on  one  Portion  of. old  *hipp‘efcH“#e  at  IpsTieh’  Ma?s”  fh0'vi-ng  the 

5 i*i  11*1  overhang  effected  by  the  use  of  a large  projecting  girt 

side  to  avoid  uneven  thickness,  and  laid 

with  the  planed  side  out.  It  is  not  necessary  that  this  boarding  be  matched; 
in  fact  it  is  just  as  well  that  it  is  not;  nor  is  it  imperative  that  the  joints  should  be 


56  The  Country  House 

laid  absolutely  close.  Rough  boarding  is  seldom  of  absolutely  straight  edge,  and 
if  laid  as  it  comes  leaves  more  or  less  irregular  joints. 

In  the  old  work  of  the  braced  frame  the  boarding  was  laid  horizontally.  This 
is  a good  method,  and  saves  both  time  and  labour.  The  nature  of  the  balloon 
frame,  however,  demands  that  the  boarding  be  laid  diagonally.  Its  direction 
should  be  changed  several  times  on  each  wall  surface  so  that  the  bracing  shall 

be  effective  both 
ways. 

Although  there 
are  those  who  insist 
on  the  horizontal 
boarding  for  the 
braced  frame,  yet 
the  additional 
strength  afforded  by 
the  diagonal  board- 
ing is  no  small  factor 
toward  the  general 
rigidity  of  the  whole. 
Theoretically  the 
braced  frame  is 
rigid,  and  in  oak 
the  reality  comes 
close  to  theory;  yet 
as  we  build  to-day 
it  is  far  from  being 

true  practically.  Of  course  it  is  almost  impossible,  under  the  conditions  im- 
posed by  present  methods  and  materials,  to  make  the  frame  structure  so  rigid 
that  it  will  not  rock  a little.  And  it  is  for  this  reason  that  it  is  wise  to  take 
advantage  of  every  stiffening  and  strengthening  method  that  can  be  easily  used. 

1 he  roof  boarding  should  be  the  same  as  that  used  for  the  wall.  Here  again, 
in  the  case  of  the  pitch  or  gambrel  roof,  the  diagonal  boarding  can  be  used  to 
advantage,  as  these  roofs  have  no  absolute  braces  in  the  framing.  The  hip  roof, 
on  the  contrary,  is,  from  its  construction,  self-braced,  and  the  boarding  can 
be  laid  in  the  usual  manner. 

Sometimes  the  roof  is  simply  covered  with  horizontal  strips,  spaced  so  as 
to  receive  the  shingle  nailings.  This,  at  best,  is  not  a first-class  method  for  what 
is  to  be  considered  a good  kind  of  house,  although  it  may  do  for  the  simpler 
summer  house  or  camp.  It  has  one  advantage,  perhaps,  that  of  the  ease  with 
which  a leak  can  be  detected  and  located  as  compared  with  the  difficulty  of 
doing  so  in  the  boarded  type. 

Under  floors  should  be  of  matched  hemlock  of  even  thickness,  laid  close 
and  diagonally  to  insure  a breaking  of  joints  between  them  and  the  upper  floors. 
Ordinarily  the  under  floor  is  laid  in  line  with  the  upper  floor,  and  at  right  angles 
to  the  floor  timbers.  As  it  is  necessary  that  the  upper  floor  breaks  joints  with 
the  lower,  this  method  requires  some  diligent  watching  on  the  part  of  the  superin- 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


57 


tendent,  owing  to  the  paper  used  between,  which  renders  it  most  difficult  to  detect 
the  unbroken  joint.  The  diagonal  under-flooring  obviates  this  difficulty.  In  the 
case  of  the  parquet  floor,  the  underfloor  should  run  at  right  angles  to  the 
timbers. 

Sometimes  but  one  floor  is  used,  but  this  is  a decided  mistake  in  good  work. 
It  causes  noise  and  dirt.  With  the  shrinking  of  the  floor  boards  come  cracks, 
and  through  the 
cracks  come  cold 
air  and  dust;  and  if 
we  lay  a carpet  it 
will  rise  and  swell 
like  a toad. 

Brick  walls  are, 
in  the  ordinary 
forms,  simple  of 
construction.  They 
may  be  solid  or 
vaulted.  The  vault- 
ed wall  is  one  in 
which  an  air  space, 
usually  of  2 inches, 
is  left  in  the  inside 
(see  Fig.  2).  1 his 

space  extends  from 
the  bottom  to  the 
top  and  is  cross-tied 

so  as  to  form  a practically  solid  wall;  the  space  about  the  floor  timbers  is 
filled  in  solid.  It  is  readily  seen  that  increase  of  width  and  stability  is  thus  ob- 
tained, without  increase  of  material  and  very  little  extra  labour.  There  is  another 
advantage — the  ordinary  brick  wall  is  more  or  less  porous  and  apt  to  take  in 
moisture,  and  this  air  space  keeps  the  moisture  from  penetrating  the  inner  shell. 
It  can  be  used  as  a ventilation  flue,  which,  furthermore,  serves  the  purpose 
of  keeping  the  space  itself  fairly  dry.  This  vaulted  wall  is  an  outside  wall  feature, 
not  an  inside  one. 

Generally  speaking,  an  outside  wall  should  not  be  less  than  12  or  14  inches 
thick,  and  if  in  the  lower  of  the  two  stories,  16  or  18  inches  is  better.  An  interior 
wall  which  has  to  carry  any  considerable  weight  and  is  of  normal  height  should 
be  12  inches  thick.  This  will  answer  for  the  first  and  second  stories,  but  the 
cellar  support  should  be  16  inches  thick.  An  8-inch  wall  should  not  be  used 
to  carry  any  great  weight;  it  may  be  used  in  the  attic  or  for  small  partitions, 
but  never  in  the  outside  walls. 

The  method  of  setting  floor  timbers  in  a brick  wall  is  simple  and  unique  (see 
Fig.  2).  As  the  bearing  is  ordinarily  4 inches,  the  bottoms  are  sized  that  distance 
in  from  the  ends.  The  ends  are  then  cut  away,  from  4 inches  at  the  top  to  noth- 
ing at  the  bottom,  so  that  in  case  of  fire  the  falling  timbers  will  not  act  as  a 
lever  and  pry  the  walls  over,  as  would  be  the  tendency  if  they  were  square.  It 


58  The  Country  House 

is  also  well  to  leave  a little  space  all  around  the  end  of  the  beams  to  allow  a 
circulation  of  air  and  thus  prevent  dry  rot. 

At  intervals  of  not  more  than  8 feet  in  the  length  of  the  W’all  the  floor 

timbers  should  be 
“anchored”  to  it. 
1 his  line  of  an- 
choring should  be 
continuous  through 
the  building  fiom 
side  to  side.  The 
anchors  are  usually 
made  of  ^-inch  flat 
iron  bands,  ij 
inches  wide  and  4 
feet  long,  turned 
up  about  4 inches 
at  one  end,  while 
the  other  is  per- 
forated for  attach- 
ment to  the  beam. 
The  turned-up  end 
is  built  into  the 
wall  just  behind 

the  outside  face  course  and  the  bar  carried  back  along  the  side  of  the  beam  and 
spiked  to  it. 

The  stone  house  is  built  of  a stone  “facing”  for  effect,  backed  up  with 
smaller  rough  stones  or  brick,  the  whole  being  bonded  and  tied  together  with 
anchor  irons.  These  irons  should  be  galvanised,  and  are  usually  of  one 
12-inch  iron  1 inch  wide.  They  are  turned  up  at  either  end  in  opposite  direc- 
tions; one  end  is  rounded  for  insertion  into  the  stone,  the  other  turns  up  on  the 
inside  of  the  wall.  As  the  drill  hole  is  from  to  2 inches  from  the  face  of  the 
stone  the  length  of  the  anchor  is  easily  estimated. 

In  the  case  of  a rough  field-stone  wall  the  lining  is  often  omitted;  the  wall 
is  laid  entirely  of  this  stone  and  studding  set  against  it.  In  this  case  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  usual  brick  fire  stops  be  not  omitted.  In  a stone  or  brick  wall 
the  plate  is  bolted  to  its  top.  This  is  done  by  building  in  the  bolts  at  intervals 
of  from  4 to  6 feet,  so  that  they  will  project  above  the  wall  and  through  the 
plates.  The  washer  on  the  bolt  head  which  sets  into  the  wall  is  usually  a stout 
strip  of  iron  about  12  inches  long. 

Wooden  laths  are  4 feet  long.  When  the  studs  are  16  inches  on  centres 
there  are  three  nailings  to  a lath;  when  12  inches  on  centres  there  are  four. 
They  should  always  be  laid  horizontally,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  with 
joints  broken  every  6 to  4 courses  (see  Fig.  5).  If  the  joint  is  broken  every  lath 
it  makes  a better  job,  but  this  is  not  as  convenient  as  the  other  method 
nor  as  common.  Above  door  and  window  openings  the  laths  should  extend  over 
to  the  next  stud  beyond  the  jamb  in  order  to  prevent  cracks  in  the  plastering. 


“ Eastover,”  at  Wyoming,  N.  J.  Joy  Wheeler  Dow,  architect1 


Construction  of  the  Shell 


59 


A modern  development  of  the  Colonial,  retaining  the  simple  lines  and  tall  pillars  of  the 
earlier  days.  Henry  B.  Alden,  architect 


The  same  rules  will  apply  to  the  ceiling,  only  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
furring  is  straight  and  true  before  lathing  commences. 

In  the  case  of  the  brick  wall,  the  furrings  are  fastened  to  the  brick  work 
and  the  laths  laid 
on  them  in  the  usu- 
al way. 

Wire  lathing 
has  many  advan- 
tages, and  where 
it  can  be  afforded 
should  by  all  means 
be  used.  It  is  ap- 
plied to  the  stud- 
ding and  furring, 
and  usually  by 
means  of  staples. 

Where  used  it 
should  be  of  the 
heaviest,  so  as  not 
to  sag  in  the  inter- 
vals between  sup- 
ports. The  fact  that  it  is  non-conbustible  and  holds  the  mortar  very  tightly  makes 
it  far  superior  to  wooden  laths,  and  worth  the  extra  expense. 

As  the  projecting  corners  of  a chimney  breast  or  other  similar  features 
are  quickly  destroyed,  if  of  plaster,  it  is  best  to  use  the  angle  bead  (a  f-round 
wooden  or  metal  member),  which,  fitted  to  the  angle  before  plastering,  receives 
it,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  be  damaged  as  the  plaster  corner. 

It  is  always  best  that  the  plastering  be  carried  to  the  floor.  In  this  case 

two  grounds  are  . , 

necessary,  one  at 
the  bottom  and  one 
further  up  at  the 
top  of  the  base- 
board. This  gives 
a secure  nailing  for 
that  member  (see 
Fig.  2). 

As  the  face  of 
the  ground  denotes 
the  face  of  the 
plaster,  the  thick- 
ness of  that  mem- 
ber differs  with  the 

two  and  three  coat  work — three-quarters  of  an  inch  for  the  former  and  seven- 
eighths  for  the  latter. 

While  plaster  is  sometimes  applied  to  a brick  wall,  it  does  not,  at  the  best. 


Lord  & Hewlett,  architects 


6o 


The  Country  House 

make  a good  job,  owing  to  the  little  hold  it  has  upon  the  bricks.  Should  it  be 
required,  however,  the  first  rough  coat  is  omitted. 

Although  with  care  the  two-coat  work  can  be  made  a creditable  job,  yet  the 
three-coat  method  is  preferable,  inasmuch  as  the  final  result  is  surer  and  better. 
In  the  former  a rough  “scratch”  coat  is  first  applied,  and  then  finished  with  the 
“skim”  coat.  In  the  three-coat  work  the  “scratch”  coat  is  first  applied  as 
in  two-coat,  being  forced  through  the  lathing  to  insure  a good  clinch  on  the  back. 
The  surface  is  then  scratched  with  a comb  to  present  a rough,  adhesive  surface 
for  the  next  coat.  When  dry  the  second  or  “brown”  coat  is  applied  and 
brought  to  an  even  and  true  surface  by  means  of  straight-edges.  Over  this  the 
final  or  “skim”  coat  is  laid. 

Back  plastering  is  applied  to  the  inside  of  the  rough  boarding  of  a frame 
house  to  exclude  cold  and  heat,  and  consists  of  one  rough  coat.  Coming  be- 
tween the  studs,  the  lathing  must  be  cut  to  fit,  and  in  order  that  the  plaster  may 
adhere  the  lathing  should  be  furred  off  from  the  boarding  by  using  a lath  in 
each  corner.  If  these  furring  laths  are  set  out  from  the  corners  about  half  an 
inch,  it  gives  a chance  for  the  corner  plaster  to  clinch,  which  is  still  better. 

Note. — It  should  be  remembered  that  the  various  woods  specified  in  this  chapter,  and  in  fact  throughout  the  book,  are  those 
in  common  use  about  New  York  and  the  East  in  general.  Other  parts  of  the  country  have  their  natural  substitutes  for 
many  of  these. 


Court  side  of  Royal  House,  at  Medford,  Mass.,  showing 
the  combination  of  wooden  side  walls  with  brick  ends  in  which 
the  chimneys  are  placed 


A mission  house  showing  the  effect  of  plain  stucco  walls 


CHAPTER  IV 
Details  of  Finish 

RIOR  to  putting  on  the  wall  covering  all  the  outside  finish  must 
first  he  set  in  place. 

Cornices  are  of  two  sorts — hox  and  open  (see  I and  4, 
Fig.  6).  The  box  cornice  is  based  upon  the  old  classic 
models,  whether  it  comes  near  to  the  original  lines  or  not.  It 
is  an  attempt  to  produce  stone  lines  in  wood,  and  shows  nothing 
of  its  own  true  construction.  In  thus  attempting  to  reproduce 
one  material  with  another  it  falls  under  what  is  generally  considered  a bad 
architectural  practice.  Owing  to  the  very  extended  custom  of  its  use,  however, 
it  has  come  to  be  generally  considered  as  an  exception  to  this  rule.  As  used  in 
the  better  examples  of  Colonial  work,  it  has  become  in  a measure  distinct  from 
the  classic  by  the  reduction  of  its  general  scale  and  also  the  scale  of  its  details. 
This  fact  serves  to  set  it  apart  from  the  heavy  proportions  of  stone. 

Another  form  of  cornice  is  that  seen  in  some  of  the  English  and  French  work. 
It  consists  in  the  gutter  or  gutter  moulding,  with  a smaller  moulding  below.  Its 
projection  is  but  slight,  and  in  appearance  and  construction  it  is  but  little  more 
than  part  of  the  wall  itself.  As  the  principles  of  the  other  cornices  cover  it  so 
thoroughly  it  will  not  he  further  considered  here.  Commonly  this  cornice  is 
Gothic,  and  is  usually  employed  with  that  style. 

6l 


62 


The  Country  House 


Fig.  6.  Section  of  wooden  cornices 


The  simple  form  of  box  cornice  is  constructed  about  the  projecting  ends  of  the 
roof  rafters,  which  are  cut  off  vertically  at  an  established  distance  beyond  the 

house  walls.  Only  one  series  of  fur- 
rings  is  necessary  to  complete  the  shell 
— horizontal  pieces  to  which  the  plancia 
is  attached  (see  Fig.  6).  The  nose  of 
the  gutter  should  be  in  line  with  the  top 
of  the  roof  boarding,  so  that  the  extra 
height  given  by  the  shingle  shall  insure 
the  free  passage  of  sliding  snow  over  it; 
this  is  an  insistent  rule.  If  a wooden 
gutter  is  used,  the  fascia  is  tongued  into 
the  under  side  of  it,  and  ordinarily  the 
plancia  is  tongued  into  the  fascia.  This 
makes  a tight  box  of  the  cornice,  which 
is  rigidly  insisted  upon  in  spite  of  its 
serious  drawback. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  snow, 
gathering,  as  it  does,  on  the  lower  edge 
of  the  roof,  is  apt  to  melt  and  back  up 
under  the  shingles,  the  above  method 
does  not  seem  wise  for  Northern  local- 
ities. Water  comes  in,  stains  the  walls, 
peels  off  paint  and  paper  and  destroys 
the  plastering,  and  still  no  means  are 
taken  to  stop  it.  With  the  steep  roof 
this  is  unlikely  to  occur,  but  with  the  roof  of  less  than  450  it  is  almost  certain. 
Of  course  it  will  be  understood  that  this  mishap  is  not  of  very  frequent  occur- 
rence; but  as  one  visitation  is  enough  to  do  considerable  damage,  and  as  its 
repetition  is  a constant  menace,  some  means  should  be  taken  to  obviate  it. 

One  remedy  is  to  leave  an  open 
space  between  the  shingle  nailings  in 
the  roof  boards  overhanging  the  wall, 
or  to  lay  the  shingles  at  this  point  on 
strips.  To  prevent  the  collection  of 
moisture  in  the  cornice  box  the  plancia 
is  pitched  slightly,  and  where  ordinarily 
tongued  into  the  fascia,  a one-quarter- 
inch  space  is  left.  This  space,  being  in 
shadow,  will  show  very  little  (see  I 

Fig.  6). 

Another  method  of  treating  the 
plancia  would  be  to  tongue  it  into  the 
fascia  in  the  usual  way,  after  having 

Portion  of  house  near  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  showing  good  cut  notcheS  into  the  tongued  edge  7 
balcony  and  veranda  motive.  The  cornice,  while  suggestive  ..  i/:*i  ° JJ 

of  the  open  type,  is  really  a box  cornice  inches  wide  and  o inches  apart  and  deep 


a.  Stud 

b.  Plate 

c.  Rafter 

d.  Gutter 

e.  Rough  boarding 

f.  Facia 

g.  Shingle  facia 


h.  Plancia 

i.  Cornice  furring 

j.  Freize 

k.  Water  outlet 

m.  False  rafter 

n.  Drain 

o.  Plate  bolt 


p.  Inter  rafter  filling 

r.  Sheathing  finish 

s.  Gutter  hanger 

t.  Header 

x.  Rafter  furring 

y.  Zinc  water-shed 

z.  Support  for  zinc 


Details  of  Finish  63 

enough  to  leave  a quarter-inch  slot  when  in  place.  In  some  types  of  cornice  this 
would  perhaps  make  a stiffer  job  than  if  the  slot  were  continuous. 

In  any  case  the  slots  or  drains  should  be  covered  on  the  inside  with  copper 
netting  of  small  enough  mesh  to  prevent  bees,  wasps  and  the  like  from  filling  the 
cornice  with  nests  and  music,  and  thus  inviting  further  trouble  by  their  presence. 
This  fixes  the  cornice  box,  but  unless  the  projection  is  considerable  there  is 
still  the  roof  above  and  inside  the  wall  line.  This  roof  surface  can  be  taken  care 
of  by  stretching  a wide  length  of  zinc  or  painted  canvas  across  the  rafters  from  a 


“Maxwell  Court,”  Rockville,  Conn.  Charles  A.  Platt,  architect.  This  is  a most  interesting  example  of  brick  and  stone 
work  designed  on  Italian  lines.  The  wooden  cornice  is  of  the  box  type  and  is  well  proportioned 


point  outside  of  the  wall  line  toward  the  roof.  Seven-eighths-inch  furring  strips 
are  laid  on  top  of  the  rafters  to  receive  the  shingle  strips  and  to  make  a space 
between  them  and  the  zinc.  The  latter  should  be  brought  up  through  the 
roof,  at  the  top  edge,  and  tacked  down  to  the  upper  side  of  the  boarding  under 
the  shingles  (see  2,  Fig.  6).  The  sheathing  paper  should  be  omitted  between  the 
boarding  and  shingles  in  this  sort  of  construction.  By  the  above  methods  much 
annoyance  and  damage  to  the  interior  and  contents  of  the  house  may  be  avoided. 

The  true  open  cornice  is  not  boxed  in  at  the  bottom  but  open,  showing  the 
rafter  ends  which  support  it.  These  last  are  usually  more  or  less  ornamental, 


64  The  Country  House 

and  originally  were  the  true  rafter  ends.  In  order  that  it  shall  not  be  absolutely 
necessary  to  space  these  last  equidistant — an  almost  next  to  impossible  thing, 

owing  to  construction  problems — we,  in 
our  modern  work,  have  made  use  of  the 
false  rafter.  4 his  member  is  spaced 
without  regard  to  the  true  rafter,  and  is 
carried  inside  the  wall  line  and  framed 
to  a header,  becoming  in  this  way  part 
of  the  roof  and  self  supporting  (see  4, 
Fig.  6). 

Another  form  of  so-called  open 
cornice  is  that  in  which  the  true  rafter, 
or  a portion  of  it,  is  carried  beyond 
the  wall  line,  and,  being  sheathed  in 
on  the  underside,  is  embellished  with 
false  rafters  spaced  below.  This  is  not 
a true  open  cornice,  as  it  is  not  true 
construction.  It  is  commonly  called  so, 
however,  and,  being  somewhat  cheaper 
than  the  other,  is  more  commonly  used 
(see  2 and  3,  Fig.  6). 

Stones  used  for  cornices  are  laid 
one  upon  another,  in  the  usual  way,  the 
joints  being  at  the  lines  between  the 
various  members  of  the  cornice.  It  is 
important  that  each  stone  should  ex- 
tend within  the  outside  line  of  the  wall 
for  a greater  distance  than  it  projects, 
so  that  it  shall  not  depend  on  the  anchor 
irons  for  support.  It  is  not  well  that  it 
should  depend  on  these  irons  alone,  for 
if  the  roof  is  destroyed  by  fire  the  falling  cornice  may  prove  a grave  danger. 
Solid  wooden  gutters  are  usually  4x5  for  an  ordinary  small  roof  and  5 x J,  or  even 
larger,  for  a large  roof.  Sometimes  the  wooden  gutter  is  made  up  and  lined  with 
lead  or  copper.  This  makes  an  excellent  gutter,  better  even  with  the  copper  lining 
than  with  the  lead.  It  is,  however,  necessary  in  this  made-up  type  to  support  it  on 
galvanised-iron  hangers.  I he  size  and  spacing  of  hangers,  as  well  as  the  distance 
to  which  the  lining  shall  extend  under  the  shingles,  are  governed  by  the  same  rule 
as  that  which  applies  to  the  metal  gutter  (see  3,  h ig.  6). 

A good  gutter  can  he  made  from  heavy  galvanised  iron,  although  that  made 
from  16-ounce  copper  is  far  superior.  The  metal  gutter  (or  the  metal  lining) 
should  extend  under  the  shingles  for  16  inches  and  be  secured  by  galvamsed- 
iron  tacks  or  screws.  The  nose  is  turned  over  an  iron  rod  to  secure 
its  rigidity.  The  hangers  should  be  of  galvanised  wrought  iron,  ex- 
tending 2 feet  under  the  shingles  and  spaced  2 feet  apart.  If  the  metal 
gutter  be  formed  so  as  to  present  one  or  two  horizontal  planes  in  opposition 


Entrance  motive  to  house  in  Swampscott,  A^ass.  Allen  & 
Kenway,  architects.  The  house  is  of  br.ck  and  stone;  the 
hood  and  columns  of  wood 


Details  of  Finish 


65 


to  the  vertical  ones,  the  general  stiffness  of  the  member  is  increased  (see 
4,  Fig.  6). 

All  gutters  should  pitch  slightly  in  the  direction  of  the  conductors,  so  that  the 
water  may  drain  off.  In  the  old  hand-made  gutter  this  pitch  was  worked  out  in 
the  gutter  itself,  one  example  showing  it  to  have  been  1 inch  in  15  feet. 

In  the  machine-made  gutter  of  to-day  the  pitch  is  slightly  less,  and  is  gained 
by  inclining  the  gutter  on  the  fascia,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  open  cornice,  by 
making  the  rafters  longer  at  the  point  of  outlet.  Whatever  method  is  employed  it 
should  not  be  made  so  marked  as  to  be  detected. 

Conductors  or  leaders  are  best  made  of  copper;  galvanised  iron  or  tin  does 
well  enough  for  ordinary  work.  The  fact  that  they  can  be  replaced  without 
pulling  the  house  down  is  one  excuse  for  the  less  expensive  and  less  lasting  material. 

The  connection  with  the  gutters  is  through  a piece  of  lead  pipe  or  “goose 
neck.”  For  the  ordinary  roof  this  should  be  3 inches  in  diameter,  and  the  con- 
ductor, if  round,  4 inches.  Although  the  round  gutter  is  the  most  commonly 
used,  yet  the  square  patterns  are  better  from  an  artistic  standpoint,  and  fully 
as  effective.  Whether  round  or  square 
they  should  be  corrugated.  This  should 
be  rigidly  insisted  upon.  The  thawing 
of  a conductor  choked  with  ice  is  almost 
certain  to  crack  or  burst  it,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  substances  expand  with  an 
increase  of  heat.  Conductors  are  often 
made  with  ornamental  heads  which  add 
greatly  to  their  looks. 

1 he  conductors  should  be  securely 
fastened  to  the  building,  and  the  foot 
entered  into  a drain  provided  for  the 
purpose.  It  is  best,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  that  the  drain  be  a pipe 
rather  than  a blind  drain  of  stone.  A 
short  section  of  piping  may  lead  to  a 
blind  drain,  if  the  pitch  be  sufficient, 
with  good  results.  Sometimes  the  con- 
ductor may  enter  the  house  drain  to 
connect  with  the  sewer. 

For  an  ordinary  good  roof  first- 
grade  clear  cedar  or  cypress  shingles 
should  he  used.  Though  not  as  good 
as  the  hand-shaved  split  shingles,  they 
answer  very  well.  On  a roof  of  450  or  a 
steeper  one  they  should  be  laid  5 inches 
to  the  weather;  on  a flatter  roof  the 
weatherage  should  be  diminished.  It  is 

hardly  safe  to  use  shingles  as  a roof  Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Peterboro.  N.  H.  John  Fox, 

• 1 • °i  architect-  The  feature  hangs  together  well  and  the  effect  of 

covering  when  the  pitch  IS  less  than  30°,  long  shingle  is  well  managed 


66 


The  Country  House 


owing  to  the  tendency  of  water  to  back  up  under  them.  The  width  of  a roof 
shingle  should  not  exceed  8 inches,  owing  to  the  tendency  of  a wide  shingle  to 

curl  and  crack.  They  should  break 
joints  at  least  one  and  a quarter  inches, 
and  no  joints  should  be  made  within 
less  than  an  inch  of  a nail  head.  Galvan- 
ised nails  should  be  used,  with  two 
nailings  to  a narrow  and  three  nailings 
to  a wide  shingle. 

The  roof  should  be  covered  with 
thick  sheathing  paper,  stretched  flat,  well 
lapped  and  nailed  through  tin  washers. 
The  shingles  can  be  laid  on  this  or, 
better,  on  seven-eigbths  furring  strips, 
leaving  an  air  space  between  the 
shingles  and  the  roof  covering.  If  this 
space  be  filled  in  with  mortar  it  makes 
an  excellent  fireproofing.  For  the  slate 
covering  the  roof  would  naturally  have 
to  be  made  stronger  than  for  shingle. 

If  slate  is  to  be  used,  the  roof 
boarding  should  be  matched  to  offer  a 

Entrance  to  a brick  house  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  The  trim  is  further  obstacle  to  sifting  snow.  As 

of  wood,  a common  practice  in  Colonial  work  slate  f|Qes  not  qUjte  a$  tig-ht  as 

shingles,  this  is  necessary.  As  to  the 
size  of  slate,  there  seems  to  be  some  difference  of  opinion.  1 he  preference, 
however,  leans  toward  the  9 x 18  inch,  which  is  a medium  size.  Slate  should 
be  laid  7 inches  to  the  weather — no  more.  If  laid  in  mortar  they  are  less  liable 
to  breakage  in  nailing,  and  a cooler  roof  is  also  obtained.  1 here  should  be 
two  nailings  to  each  slate,  galvanised  nails  being  used. 

Slate,  though  an  excellent  fire- 
proofing agent,  is  out  of  harmony  with 
the  ordinary  frame  house.  With  the 
formal  Colonial  or  half-timber  structure 
it  is  not  so  noticeable  as  with  shingle 
walls  and  the  like.  In  a locality  where 
considerable  wood  abounds,  or  where  the 
nearness  to  other  structures  makes  the 
flying  spark  a menace,  the  question  of 
the  slate  roof  is  not  to  be  considered 
lightly.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is 
unequalled  by  any  other  material. 

In  a climate  where  snow  is  a rarity 
the  tile  is  an  excellent  roof  covering. 
Its  effect  is  that  of  corrugation,  and  it 
is  commonly  called  “Spanish  tile.”  As 


Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Locust  Valley,  L.  1.  Babb, 
Cook  & Willard,  architects.  An  excellent  example  of  the 
Elizabethan  treatment  in  brick  and  stone 


Details  of  Finish 


67 

it  is  now  made,  it  is  more  like  the  old  English  “pantile,”  that  is,  having  half  of 
the  vertical  surface  convex  and  the  other  half  concave.  The  convex  portion  over- 


Living  side  of  house  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.  Wilson  Eyre,  architect.  This  shows  an  excellent  piazza  with  flanking  benches. 
The  blinds,  in  which  the  lower  panels  are  solid,  are  worthy  of  note 


laps  the  concave  and  sheds  water  into  the  latter,  which  acts  as  a vertical  drain. 
The  old  Spanish  tile  was  made  of  half-round  sections,  a series  of  which  laid 
concave  side  up  were  overlapped  by  a series  convex  side  up,  producing  the  same 
result  as  the  pantile. 

In  Northern  latitudes,  where  it  is  desirable  to  get  the  tile-roof  effect,  as 
in  Italian  design,  it  is  best  done  in  copper.  Roof  covering  is  made  of  this  metal  in 
the  tile  form,  and  is  most  excellent. 

If  a plain  flat  copper  roof  is  to  be  used,  the  sheets  should  be  tinned  on 
the  edges,  so  that  they  may  be  soldered.  The  proper  weight  is  16  ounces. 

The  ordinary  tin  roof  is  expensive  in  the  end,  owing  to  the  constant  care  that 
must  be  lavished  upon  it.  Copper,  the  initial  cost  of  which  is  more,  requires 
little  attention  and  wears  indefinitely. 

If  a house  be  located  in  an  isolated  spot  and  is  left  for  the  winter  without  a care- 
taker, the  copper  roof  is  in  constant  danger  of  being  stolen  and  sold  as  junk.  This  has 
actually  been  known  to  happen.  Thus  you  may  suddenly  return  to  a roofless  house. 


68  The  Country  House 

The  best  material  for  flashing  is  copper;  next  to  that  is  lead,  which  is, 
however,  hardly  second  best.  There  are  two  methods  of  flashing,  that  of  the 
long  and  that  of  the  short  pieces. 

The  first  method  consists  of  using  long  strips  of  metal,  ordinarily  from  16  to 
20  inches  wide,  laid  lengthwise  of  the  angle  and  soldered  together.  This  is 
tacked  at  the  edges,  with  the  roof  covering  overlapping  it  (in  case  of  valleys), 
or  vice  versa  (in  the  case  of  hips).  In  some  parts  of  Maine  the  open  valley  done 
in  this  way  shows  some  2 feet  of  flashing  on  each  pitch,  while  the  gutter  flashing 

extends  up  over  the  roof  some  3 feet 
before  it  reaches  the  shingles.  This 
method,  though  ugly,  is  effective  where 
snow  is  plentiful  and  where  heat  is  not 
excessive  enough  to  cause  much  expan- 
sion. Shrinkage  and  expansion  are  the 
great  drawbacks  to  long  flashings;  they 
are  apt  to  pull  the  metal  out  of  shape, 
causing  bad  leaks.  Were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  the  ordinary  gutter  flashing 
extending  under  the  shingles  were 
punched  full  of  holes  in  the  nailing  on 
of  the  roof  covering,  this  last  exposed 
method  would  not  be  made  necessary. 

The  second  method  consists  in  using 
short  pieces  instead  of  long,  which  over- 
lap each  other,  unsoldered.  This  allows 
for  contraction  and  expansion,  and,  for 
the  average  climate  of  this  country,  is  a 
better  method.  In  reality  this  flashing 
is  a flexible  shingle,  laid  in  courses  to 
conform  with  the  roof  covering.  It  is 
ordinarily,  for  valleys  and  hips,  cut  in  a 
keystone  form,  so  that  when  in  place 
the  outside  edges  are  perpendicular  to 
the  eaves  and  ridges,  and  they  should  be 
fully  18  inches  long  and  10  wide  at  the 
bottom  or  narrow  part. 

Valleys  are  either  open  or  closed.  The  open  type  is  most  common,  and  is  in 
reality  an  open  drain.  It  should  be  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  so  as 
to  induce  the  descent  and  loosening  of  snow  lodged  in  it.  The  close  type  shows 
only  the  slight  ends  of  the  flashing,  the  shingles  extending  fully  into  the  angle. 

We  have  already  shown  how  the  lower  portion  of  the  roof  can  be  treated  to 
prevent  snow  leakage  and  at  the  same  time  avoid  the  ugly  exposed  flashing  half 
way  up  the  roof.  In  a similar  manner,  the  valley  may  be  treated.  It  requires 
simply  a wide  drain  under  the  valley,  the  details  of  which  are  easily  figured  out. 
Some  arrangement  of  this  sort  with  the  close  valley  will  serve  as  a most  excellent 
safeguard  against  snow  leakage. 


Entrance  motive  to  house  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Walter  F. 
Price,  architect.  A good  combination  cf  stone,  plain  rough- 
cast and  half-timber  work.  The  carving  is  delightfully  crisp 
and  simple 


Details  of  Finish 


69 


Servants’  quarters  of  house,  at  Newburgh.  N.  Y.,  showing 
a good  piazza  and  steps;  also  a telling  use  of  the  long  shingle 
effect 


Either  of  these  forms  of  flashing,  already  described,  can  be  used  to  flash  about 
dormers,  the  problem  being  similar  to  that  of  the  valley. 

It  is  advisable  to  flash  under  the  last  course  of  shingles  on  either  side  of  the 
ridge,  and  this  flashing  should  be  in  one  piece  bent  over  in  the  form  of  the  ridge 
or  “saddle”  board  which  surmounts  the 
finished  job. 

Stepped  flashing  is  used  for  joints 
between  the  incline  of  the  roof  and  a 
vertical  wall  of  brick  or  stone,  i.  e.,  on 
sides  of  chimneys  and  gables  that  project 
above  the  roof.  The  common  method 
is  to  use  small  pieces  of  metal  of  such 
shape  and  size  as  to  conform  with  the 
shingle  courses.  The  exposed  vertical 
edges,  which  overlap  the  piece  below 
it,  are  set  so  as  to  space  one  or  two 
shingle  courses.  The  tops  are  bent  over 
and  let  into  the  horizontal  masonry 
joints  at  least  6 inches  from  the  roof. 

I hese  top  joints  should  be  built  into  the 

chimney  or  other  wall  as  it  is  constructed,  and  not  forced  in  from  the  outside 
afterward.  It  is  also  best  that  they  be  carried  into  the  wall  far  enough  to  turn 
down  over  the  outside  brick  course.  This  makes  it  impossible  for  it  to  slip  out. 

I he  loose  ends  are  adjusted  to  the  shingle 
course  afterward. 

A better  way  than  this  general 
method  is  to  cut  the  flashings  in  a rec- 
tangular form,  the  exposed  edge  on  the 
chimney  being  set  at  an  angle  so  that 
its  continuation  when  bent  upon  the 
roof  shall  be  horizontal  or  in  line  with 
the  shingle  courses.  This  makes  a better 
overlapping  joint,  the  tendency  of  which 
is  to  shed  rather  than  invite  water,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  vertical  overlap  (see 
Fig.  7).  I he  tops  of  the  flashings  can 
be  turned  into  the  wall  as  already 
described. 

I he  lower  side  of  the  chimney  is 
flashed  with  a lead  “apron,”  which 
extends  in  one  piece  horizontally  over 
the  roof  shingles,  up  one  or  two  courses 
on  the  chimney  and  into  the  horizontal 
joints.  The  upper  side  of  the  chimney 

should  be  provided  with  a “cricket”  Portion  of  house  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.  Wm.  L.  Price,  archi- 

r 1 • 1 . tect>  A creditable  handling  of  stone  and  stucco  as  influenced 

or  miniature  roof,  which  serves  to  by  French  and  English  half-timber  examples 


70  The  Country  House 

throw  the  water  on  either  side  of  it  and  avoids  the  ugly  snow  pocket  other- 
wise formed  in  the  straight  intersection.  If  the  chimney  be  but  one  flue  wide 
a much  lower  “cricket”  will  suffice  than  if  the  chimney  be  wider. 

If  the  walls  of  a gable  end  project  enough 
above  the  roof,  the  stepped  flashing  can  be  used; 
if  not,  the  flashing  must  extend  to  the  stone.  The 
common  and  worse  way  to  do  this  job  is  to  use 
long  flashings,  the  wall  edges  of  which  are  turned 
and  forced  into  a “ raggle  ” or  groove  cut  in  the  face 
of  the  coping  stone.  Expansion  and  contraction 
soon  loosen  and  destroy  the  efficiency  of  this  method. 
Instead,  the  groove  should  be  cut  into  the  under 
side  of  the  coping  stone  about  3 inches  from  the 
back  face.  The  flashing,  which  should  be  of  the 
short,  rectangular  sort,  is  carried  between  the  wall 
and  the  coping  and  turned  up  into  this  groove,  thus 
holding  it  fast  (see  Fig.  7). 

If  the  space  between  the  copper  and  stone  be 
coated  with  elastic  cement  no  water  will  get  into  the 
wall,  from  that  side  at  least.  If  this  flashing  is  found 
to  interfere  with  the  setting  of  coping  anchors,  the 
grove  can  be  cut  nearer  the  roof  side  of  the  wall. 

Ordinarily  copper  flashing  should  be  used,  never 
zinc.  In  cases  where  it  has  to  be  modelled  around 
joints  consisting  of  more  than  two  planes  or  the  inequalities  of  rough  stonework, 
lead  should  be  used.  Its  malleable  qualities  are  excellent,  and  with  care  that 
it  be  not  punctured  close  joints  can  be  obtained. 

Outside  finish,  when  it  is  intended  to  be  painted,  is  usually  of  clear  pine 
Before  putting  any  piece  of  finish  in  place  the  wall  behind  it  should  be  covered  with 
a thickness  of  heavy  sheathing  paper,  which  shall  project  3 inches  beyond  it, 
so  as  to  break  joints  with  the  other  paper  when  laid.  It  makes  a better  and  more 
lasting  job  if  the  back  of  all  finish  be  painted  before  being  set  in  place. 

The  water  table,  of  whatever  design,  should  be  flashed  with  lead  or  zinc  at  the 
joint  between  it  and  the  wall  covering;  the  flashing  to  extend  under  covering  at 
least  4 inches.  The  lower  member,  which  projects  over  the  underpinning,  should 
have  a drip,  i.  e.,  the  edge  should  be  bevelled  so  that  the  water  will  not  run  back 
into  the  wall. 

Corner  boards  should  be  slightly  reduced  on  the  back  to  within  I inch  of 
either  edge,  so  that  any  curling  of  that  member  shall  not  open  the  joint  between 
it  and  the  wall  covering.  In  this  case  the  board  is  nailed  at  the  edges  only. 
The  ordinary  flashing  for  such  work  is  a 4-inch  strip  of  zinc  laid  2 inches 
under  the  finish.  The  exposed  portion  is  covered  by  the  wall  covering,  and  thus 
makes  a satisfactory  piece  of  work.  It  is  still  better  to  use  lead  flashing  turned 
into  the  angle  and  tacked  to  the  edge  of  the  finish. 

O O # # 

Belt  courses  (generally  used  to  separate  two  different  kinds  of  wall  finish) 
run  horizontally,  and  follow  the  general  rule  of  the  water  table  as  to  flashing. 


Fig.  7.  Portion  of  chimney  and  sec- 
tion through  stone  coping,  showing  the 
flashing  of  each 


Details  of  Finish 


7i 


The  bottom  edge  which  overlaps  the  wall  covering  below  should,  as  in  the  case  with 
the  frieze  of  the  cornice,  be  either  rabbeted  or  furred  out  to  overlap  it.  Where 
the  lower  wall  is  of  brick  or  stone  the  belt  course  becomes  practically  a water 
table,  and  should  be  constructed  as  such. 

Window  and  door  casings  are  flashed,  as  are  the  corner  boards,  except  the 
head,  which  should  always  have  an  apron  of  lead  or  copper  turned  into  the  angle 
and  well  tacked  to  the  top,  after  the  manner  of  the  water-table  flashing.  When 
the  outside  casing  is  flush  with  the  boarding,  the  side  flashing  should  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  head. 

All  outside  finish  should  project  far  enough  from  the  face  of  the  wall  to  show 
fully  one-half  inch  beyond  the  extreme  projection  of  the  wall  covering. 

All  wall  covering  requires  a thickness  of  heavy  sheathing  paper  stretched  on 
the  rough  boarding  before  it  is  laid.  Paper  should  be  laid  horizontally,  each 
width  overlapping  the  one  below  it  3 inches,  and  be  secured  by  nailing  through 
tin  washers.  These  widths  of  paper  are  laid  as  the  sheathing  progresses  so  that 
it  shall  not  get  damp  and  swell,  as  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  all  done  at  once. 

Wall  shingles,  according  to  lengths,  can  be  laid 
with  various  exposures  to  the  weather.  It  is  not 
wise  that  the  weatherage  exceed  one-third  the 
length  of  the  shingle.  Michigan  pine  shingles, 
which  come  as  long  as  20  inches,  can  be  laid  nearly 
7 inches  to  the  weather;  thus  the  effect  of  the  old 
Colonial  shingle  is  easily  obtained.  This  same 
effect,  practically,  can  be  gotten  by  laying  the 
courses  in  pairs  with  an  8-inch  weatherage  and  J-inch 
between  each  course  of  shingles  in  the  pair.  If 
three  courses  are  laid  together  in  this  way  and 
then  one  plain  course  between  the  courses  of  three, 
it  is  possible  to  get  the  effect  of  from  12  to  15  inches 
weatherage,  as  the  single  course  counts  but  little  by 
contrast. 

In  laying  the  first  course  of  shingles  on  either 
wall  or  roof,  the  butts  are  cut  about  3 inches;  the 
second  course  is  laid  over  this,  with  the  butts  even. 

With  the  third  course  the  spacing  begins. 

Shingles  laid  next  to  upright  finish  should  be 
nailed  on  the  finish  edge  only,  so  that  they  will  not 
shrink  at  that  joint,  which  should  be  fairly  close 
when  laid.  The  two  shingles  coming  in  the  first 
course  over  a casing  should  break  joints  with  the 
upright  edges,  rather  than  be  laid  in  line  with  them. 

Recently  there  have  been  considerable  redwood 
shingles  in  the  market.  They  are  beautiful  in 
colour  and  texture,  and  so  far  reports  are  in 
their  favour.  As  their  grain  has  a tendency  to 
qualities  are  very  naturally  questionable  and  are  yet  to  be  determined. 


tH 

N. 


Showing  differences  in  the  wearing 
qualities  between  the  hand-shaved  pine 
and  the  sawed  cedar  shingles.  The 
former,  which  is  18  54  inches  long,  has 
done  duty  for  125  years,  the  latter  for 
1 5 years 


coarseness,  their  wearing 


7 2 The  Country  House 

Clapboards  come  in  varying  lengths,  according  to  the  section  of  the  country. 

1 hey  are  of  pine,  laid  from  the  top  downward,  nailed  to  every  stud,  and  the 
nails  set  for  puttying  as  in  the  finish.  The  ends  should  be  closely  and  evenly 
fitted  together,  so  as  to  show  as  little  joint  as  possible.  The  usual  weatherage 

is  \\  inches;  more  is  unsafe  on  account 
of  the  small  lap;  less  is  apt  to  split  the 
clapboards  as  the  grain  runs  lengthwise. 

Siding  comes  in  long  lengths  and 
is  laid  like  the  clapboard,  only  that  it 
is  rabbeted  together.  It  is  sometimes 
laid  on  the  studs  without  boarding;  such 
a method  is  not  advisable  for  the  best 
work,  while  it  may  answer  for  the 
summer  cottage.  Some  very  good  effects 
can  be  gotten  by  the  use  of  siding;  a 
moulded  edge  is  often  used  with  excellent 
results. 

Stucco,  so  far  as  the  general  results 
show,  is  not  a wall  covering  particularly 
suited  to  our  colder  climate.  It  has 
been  used  in  many  instances,  however, 
in  New  England  and  the  North  Atlantic 
states,  with  good  results.  Its  great 
tendency  is  to  crack  and  fall  off,  and 
the  discreet  builder  will  avoid  it  on  general  principles,  unless  it  be  for  a 
fairly  warm  climate.  If  one  is  desirous  of  using  it  in  the  North,  and  can  find 
an  example  handy  which  has  stood  the  test,  and  get  one’s  job  done  by  the  same 
workman,  his  chances  of  a decent  wall  are  good.  The  great  trouble  is  to  get 
this  work  done  carefully  and  properly. 

While  differing  slightly  in  the  method  of  application,  yet  that  laid  in  the 
usual  way,  on  wire  lathing  and  furring  strips  affixed  to  the  boarding,  is  as  good 
as  any.  The  furrings  should  be  frequent,  and  of  a triangular  shape,  with  the 
lathing  affixed  to  the  apex  of  the  triangle,  so  that  none  of  the  clinch  of  the  plaster 
shall  be  lost.  The  sheathing  paper  used  on  rough  boarding,  in  this  connection, 
should  be  waterproof  and  well  lapped,  and  nailed  with  galvanised-iron  nails 
through  tin  washers.  The  nailings  should  be  more  numerous  than  in  the  case 
of  contact  sheathing. 

Common  bricks  for  wall  facing  should  be  of  even  tone,  regular,  and  not 
too  light  in  colour.  Light  bricks  crumble  and  break  easily  when  struck  one 
against  the  other;  such  should  be  rejected.  Even  good  bricks  vary  in  colour, 
according  to  their  distance  from  the  fire  in  burning,  and  the  usual  method  is  to 
sort  over  the  lot  and  “cull”  them  according  to  shade.  They  are  then  laid  in 
the  wall,  grading  from  light  at  the  bottom  to  dark  at  the  top. 

I he  common  brick  measures  nearly  8 inches  in  length,  4 in  width  and 

2 in  thickness.  The  old  English  brick  was  much  larger,  and  the  various  face  brick 
made  to-day  are  of  various  sizes,  being  often  long  and  thin. 


fig.  8.  The  square  window.  Stone  cap  and  sills  showing 
various  kinds  of  brick  work 


Details  of  Finish 


73 


The  common  method  of  laying  the  facing  brick  is  in  courses  of  stretchers,  with 
a course  of  headers  every  sixth  course.  This  makes  a good  wall,  both  in  ap- 
pearance and  stability,  “blemish  bond”  is  laid  of  alternate  headers  and  stretchers 
in  each  course;  “English  bond”  consists  of  alternate  courses  of  headers  and 
stretchers  (see  Fig.  8).  Both  these  last  make  as  strong  a job  as  can  be  built, 
there  being  little  choice  between  them.  Flemish  bond  is  generally  preferred  for 
effect,  and  was  largely  used  in  the  Southern  Colonial  architecture.  It  is  not 
advisable  to  lay  any  sort  of  masonry  in  freezing  weather.  Bricks  are  ordinarily 
laid  wet;  in  freezing  weather,  however,  they  should  be  laid  dry. 

The  most  common  method  of  supporting  the  masonry  over  a door  or  window 
opening  is  by  the  stone  cap  or  lintel.  Although  it  has  the  appearance  of  carry- 
ing the  load  above  single-handed,  yet  it  is  reinforced  at  the  back  by  a relieving 
arch,  which  takes  the  load  and  prevents  the  stone  from  breaking.  This  arch, 
segmental  in  form,  is  turned  on  wood  centres,  and  consists  ordinarily  of  two 
courses  of  brick  set  on  edge  with  close  joints  (see  Fig.  8).  The  w^all  being  bonded 
together  above  it,  is  thus  supported, 
while  the  capstone  is  relieved  of  the 
strain.  If  an  extra  heavy  weight  comes 
over  the  opening  the  depth  of  the  arch 
is  increased,  and  frequently  a piece  of 
railroad  iron  is  inserted  over  the  cap  to 
relieve  this  latter  member  directly. 

Floor  timbers  coming  above  an 
opening  are  sometimes  supported  on  iron 
beams  set  in  the  wall  above  the  arch,  or 
bv  framing  a header  into  the  timbers  on 
either  side  of  the  opening  for  the  sup- 
port of  those  in  the  interval  between. 

Where  an  arch  is  substituted  for 
the  cap,  the  relieving  arch  usually  takes 
its  form,  being  above  it  correspondingly 
as  the  rabbet  made  in  the  vertical  jambs 
for  the  insertion  of  the  window  frames. 

In  such  cases  the  centres  are  removed 
after  the  arch  is  set.  Should  the  arch 
be  near  the  corner  or  end  of  the 
wall,  or  be  of  such  form,  or  be 
loaded  so  as  to  exert  a consider- 
able thrust  or  spreading  pressure 
upon  the  two  piers  from  which  it 
springs,  a tie  iron  should  be  built 
into  the  wall  and  securely  anchored 
in  either  pier,  to  counteract  such 
pressure.  If  the  arch  be  fairly  high, 

this  iron  may  extend  across  the  open-  _ „ „ , , , 

. . 1 • 1 r 1 * 1 *r  Entrance  to  Belle  Aire,  Maryland,  showing  the  effective  use 

mg  at  the  height  of  the  spring;  if  Of  Flemish  bond  as  laid  in  two  shades  of  brick 


74 


The  Country  House 


low,  it  can  be  inserted  above  the  arch.  1 he  spring  of  the  arch  is  its  point  of 
beginning  on  the  piers. 

Stone  sills  are  either  “lug”  or  “slip”  sills.  The  former  is  built  into  the  wall 
at  either  end,  the  built-in  poitions  being  called  the  “lugs.”  The  slip  sill,  having  no 


*5A mt(ho4.  of  mnchonngr  m Hurt  marble  faun£_. 


Hg.  9.  Several  types  of  stone  wall 


.ugs,  is  only  as  long  as  the  width  of  the  opening,  and  is  slipped  into  place  after  the 
opening  is  finished.  1 his  sill  is  generallv  used  for  basement  windows  where  no 
other  brick  walls  exist. 

Care  should  he  taken  that  the  course  of  brick  under  the  lug  sill  he  not 
inserted  until  after  the  wall  has  settled  and  the  mortar  is  thoroughly  dry  and  hard, 
otherwise  the  sill  is  apt  to  he  broken.  If  this  course  be  laid  up  solidly  at  first, 
the  settlement  of  the  walls  at  the  side  of  the  opening,  which  is  greater  than  the 
portion  under  the  sdl  owing  to  the  unequal  distribution  of  weight,  is  very  apt  to 
force  the  lugs  down  while  the  central  portion  remains  practically  normal.  1 he 
result  is  obvious.  Sometimes  it  is  merely  the  mortar  joints  between  the  sill  and 
brick  work  that  is  omitted;  while  this  is  effective,  the  other  method  is  perhaps  safer. 

Although  the  stone  facing  is  subject  to  a variety  of  forms  and  treatment,  we 
shall  consider  only  those  commonly  used  in  the  country  house  (for  dlustrations 
see  Fig.  9). 

Random  work  is  composed  of  stone  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  laid  with  an 
eye  only  to  good  bondage  and  effect,  and  regardless  of  courses.  Its  face  may  be 
irregular  and  rounding,  as  in  field  stones;  or  more  even,  as  in  the  case  of  slate. 
The  joints  should  be  well  filled  with  mortar  and  “weathered,”  or  pitched,  so  that 
water  shall  not  enter  the  wall. 

Stones  used  in  rubble  work  are  approximately  rectangular.  They  may 
be  laid  “random,”  without  reference  to  courses,  or  in  courses  of  varying 
heights. 

O 

I he  stones  used  in  ashlar  are  cut  in  rectangular  shape  and  the  outside  edges, 


Details  of  Finish 


75 


regardless  of  the  face,  made  straight  and  true,  so  that  the  finished  mortar  joints 
shall  come  in  one  vertical  plane. 

Random  ashlar  consists  of  blocks  of  varying  size  laid  without  regard  to 
courses.  I he  best  results  are  obtained  in  limiting  any  continuous  horizontal  run 
of  joints  to  6 feet;  less  than  this  is  better. 

Where  the  stone  used  is  not  so  expensive  as  to  be  a mere  shell,  a most 
effective  joint  is  obtained  by  making  the  back  wedge-shaped,  so  as  to  tie 
in  with  the  rough  wall  (see  Fig.  9).  This  wedge  should  not  be  pointed  enough 
to  break  off. 

Coursed  ashlar  explains  itself;  the  courses  may  be  of  the  same  height  or 
not,  and  the  stones  of  uniform  or  varying  sizes.  For  the  most  severe  styles 
uniform  stones  and  courses  are  generally  used. 

Ashlar  has  either  a rough  or  “quarry”  face,  or  a “dressed”  face.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  ashlar  does  not  extend  through  the  wall  so  as  to  bond  the 
whole  together,  it  is  secured  to  the  backing  by  means  of  anchor  irons.  Four- 
inch  ashlar  should  have  an  anchor  in  every  stone;  thicker  ashlar  should  be 
anchored  about  once  in  every  running  3 feet  and  every  2 feet  in  height.  Belt 
courses,  cornice  stones  and  top  courses  should  have  an  anchor  in  each  stone, 
and  in  extreme  cases  two. 

Coping  stones  on  gables  should  be  anchored  securely  to  the  wall  to  prevent 
their  sliding.  I he  kneelers  or  corbels  which  receive  the  thrust  can  take  care  of 
themselves,  but  hardly  more.  It  is  best  that  they  be  anchored  too.  Sometimes  an 
intermediary  stone  is  introduced  in  the  pitch  to  lessen  the  weight  of  the  coping  thrust. 
I his  is  effective,  and  oftentimes  a most  artistic  arrangement  (see  “b,”  Fig.  10). 
I his,  however,  is  not  absolutely  necessary  as  the  anchoring  will  be  sufficient. 

I he  junction  of  the  piazza  with  the  house  should  in  all  cases  be  made  tight 
and  solid  and  be  well  flashed  to  avoid  leakage. 

I he  foundation  of  piazzas  should  be 
brick  or  stone,  carried  well  below  frost,  and 
of  sufficient  bulk  to  avoid  any  chance  of  settle- 
ment. Nothing  looks  worse  than  the  settled 
piazza,  which  has  the  appearance  of  being 
ready  to  slide  off  into  the  ground.  This  is  a 
common  fault,  due  largely  to  the  insufficient 
size  of  the  pier  footings. 

The  piazza  floor  should  be  of  matched 
i\  Georgia  pine,  blind  nailed.  It  should 
pitch  outward  £ inch  to  the  foot  and  be  laid 
in  the  direction  of  the  pitch,  with  ample 
facilities  for  free  drainage. 

1 he  sills  should  be  painted  all  over  with 
a generous  priming  coat  before  being  enclosed. 

This  and  a coat  of  tar  on  the  top  edge 
will  preserve  the  member  from  premature 
decay.  The  butts  are  particularly  susceptible,  owing  to  their  porous  nature. 

The  foot  of  all  columns  should  be  tarred  or  set  in  elastic  cement. 


76 


The  Country  House 


Up  to  8 inches  or  so  in  diameter  they  can  be  turned  from  a solid  stick.  If 
in  excess  of  this,  the  made-up  hollow  column  is  preferable,  owing  to  the  invariable 
tendency  of  large,  solid  sticks  to  “check”  or  crack.  There  are  several  patent 

made-up  columns  on  the  market  which 
are  worth  considering. 

All  steps,  whether  of  stone  or  wood, 
should  have  a slight  pitch,  to  effect  the 
shedding  of  water.  If  of  wood  they 
should  be  of  the  best  Georgia  pine,  2^ 
inches  wide  by  ij  thick,  laid  with  open 
joints.  A step  made  up  of  2 x if  inches, 
set  edgewise,  furred  f inch  apart  at 
intervals  of  I foot  and  bolted  together 
Three  chimneys  adapted  to  designs  through  each  furring,  makes  a better, 

the  English  style  Each  suggests  though  more  expensive,  job. 
number  of  flues  it  carries  o r 7 J 

Stone  steps  are  preferable  to  wood. 
Even  in  a flight  of  wooden  steps  the 
lower  one  should  be  of  stone.  Granite  is  perhaps  the  best  stone  to  use,  unless 
there  be  other  and  different  stone  in  the  house  which  it  is  advisable  to  duplicate. 


Interior  Details 


Wooden  bases  are  set  prior  to  laying  the  upper  floor.  In  this  way  any 
shrinkage  at  the  bottom  is  not  noticeable,  and  the  upper  floor,  butting  against  it, 
can  easily  be  taken  up  and  replaced.  In  the  best  classes  of  work  a small  quarter 
round  is  inserted  into  tbe  angle  between  base  and  flooring,  so  that  the  floor  may  be 
more  easily  swept.  With  a tile  floor,  tile  or  marble  bases  are  preferable  to  wood. 

Ordinary  upper  floors  are  best  of  Southern  pine,  i.  e.,  hard  pine  from  which 
the  pitch  has  been  extracted.  Floors  that  are  to  be  exposed  are  better  of  rift 
Georgia  pine.  More  expensive  floors  can  be  laid  in  any  of  the  hard  woods 

used  for  that  purpose,  such  as  oak  or  maple. 

Upper  floors  should  be  laid  of  matched  stock,  blind 
nailed,  and  not  exceeding  3 inches  in  width.  They 
should  be  clear  stock,  free  from  knots,  sap  and  shakes. 
There  should  be  one  thickness  of  building  or  asbestos 
paper  between  the  rough  and  top  floor- 
ing. This  serves  to  some  extent  as  a 
deafening,  and  in  the  case  of  the  asbestos, 
as  a fireproofing. 

Parquet  floors  are  usually  laid  by 
the  people  who  manufacture  them. 
These  specialists  understand  their  busi- 
ness better  than  the  ordinary  carpenter, 
...  _ and  a superior  job  is  the  result. 

OL  , J J ...  . To  prevent  sound  from  travelling 

Showing  an  open  cornice,  leader,  moulded  siding  and  water-  1 . . . . 

table,  all  of  good  design  thrOUgTl  3 flOOT  It  IS  DCSt  tilHt  3 COnCTCtCj 


Details  of  Finish 


77 


composed  of  cement,  sand  and  screened  cinders,  be  laid  below  the  flooring.  To 
effect  this  shoulder  strips  are  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  floor  timbers,  3 inches 
from  the  top,  on  which  short  half-inch  boards  are  nailed,  or  it  may  be  possible  to 
use  up  short  pieces  of  seven-eighths  stock.  The  concrete  is  laid  on  this  to  a level 
with  the  under  side  of  the  flooring.  For  a cheaper  method  deafening  felt, 
used  in  two  or  three  thicknesses  between  the  floors,  is  fairly  effective,  and  is 
most  generally  employed  for  this  purpose  owing  to  its  inexpensiveness. 

Tile,  where  laid  upon  wooden  sup- 
ports, should  be  treated  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  One-inch  rough  flooring 

is  laid  on  strong  cleats  affixed  to  the 
inside  of  the  floor  timbers,  after  the 
manner  of  the  concrete  floor  deafening. 

On  this  is  laid  one  course  of  brick  set 
edgewise.  The  tiles  are  then  laid  in  a 
cement  bed  on  top.  The  depth  of  the 
rough  supporting  floor  below  the  top 
of  the  floor  timbers  is  governed  entirely 
by  the  sum  total  thickness  of  brick, 
cement  and  tile,  which  latter  is  on  a 
level  with  other  floors. 

Where  cornices  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  plaster  walls,  they 
should  be  of  stucco.  They  are  “run” 
before  the  finish  coat  of  plastering  is 
applied.  The  angles  between  the  walls 
and  the  ceiling  are  filled  out  and  made 
as  rough  as  possible,  that  the  cornice 
shall  adhere  firmly  when  put  up. 

Where  panelled  wainscoting,  walls 
or  ceilings  are  to  be  used,  their  general 
construction  should  be  the  same  as  that 
of  doors  (see  chapter  on  doors).  It  is 
put  in  in  sections,  each  section  being 
made  and  fitted  at  the  factory.  They 
should  not  be  constructed  until  tbe  rough 
walls  are  in  place,  as  these  are  apt  to 
vary  slightly  from  these  scale  calcula- 
tions, and  the  mere  fraction  of  an  inch  makes  considerable  difference  in  such 
work.  It  is  customary  to  measure  the  rough  wa\\  when  completed  and  send  these 
careful  figures  to  the  maker  or,  better,  let  him  make  his  own  measurements. 

Picture  mouldings  should  be  well  nailed  to  the  studding,  and  should  be  set 
on  a line  with  some  member;  or,  if  independent,  so  placed  as  not  to  conflict 
with  other  members.  There  is  no  sense  in  running  them  close  on  top  of  the 
window  casings;  if  that  is  about  the  desired  height,  they  should  butt  against  that 
member,  carrying  out  the  line  of  the  cap  or  upper  member. 


Page  from  modern  hardware  catalogue  showing  the  revival 
of  old  Colonial  patterns  in  door  knockers 


78 


The  Country  House 


Painting  and  Hardware 


Outside  woodwork  is  “primed”  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  set.  This 
prevents  warping  and  several  other  undesirable  things.  The  nail  holes  are 
then  puttied  up  prior  to  laying  the  second  coat.  Knots  and  sap  streaks  should 

be  shellaced.  Two 
coats  are  enough  at 
first;  the  third  coat 
only  serves  to  con- 
ceal bad  workman- 
ship. Furthermore, 
if  a year  be  allowed 
to  elapse  the  finish 
will  have  a chance 
to  shrink,  and  then 
it  can  be  puttied  up, 
if  necessary,  before 
the  third  coat  is  laid. 

It  is  customary 
to  paint  from  the 
roof  down,  so  that 
the  finished  work 
shall  not  be  spat- 
tered. Body  and 
trim,  even  if  of  dif- 
ferent colour,  are  car- 
ried along  together 
from  one  hanging  of 
the  staging. 

Exposed  exte- 

Old  music  gallery  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  and  interior  capital  from  " Brandon,”  Virginia.  TIOT  tin  OT  galva- 

nised iron  should 

have  two  coats  of  metallic  paint,  to  protect  it  as  much  as  possible  from  rust. 

Inside  woodwork  should  receive  one  coat  of  oil  to  prevent  putty  from  falling 
out;  otherwise  it  should  receive  the  same  treatment  as  the  exterior,  two  coats  usually 
being  applied. 

All  paint  used  should  be  of  the  best,  and  is  generally  specified  as  “lead, 
ground  in  oil.” 

There  are  several  good  prepared  stains  on  the  market,  which  save  mixing. 
Cresote  stains,  though  excellent  for  exterior  work,  are  apt  to  retain  theii 
odour  too  long  for  the  interior. 

All  shingle  roofs  should  be  stained.  In  this  process  “dipping”  should 
be  insisted  upon,  i.  e.,  the  shingle  is  dipped  into  a vessel  of  stain  so  as  to 
cover  two-thirds  of  it  from  the  butt  up.  In  this  way  only  is  the  staining 
effective.  If  painted  on,  the  natural  shrinkage  soon  leaves  uncovered  places 
exposed,  and  it  is  these  small  channels  that  receive  most  of  the  wear  and 


Details  of  Finish 


79 

which  it  is  most  important  to  protect.  Wall  shingles  should  be  treated  in 
the  same  way. 

Inside  stain  should  be  applied  before  puttying  and  the  putty  be  coloured 
to  match  it.  This  stain  should  be  wiped  with  an  old  cloth,  so  that  no  surplus 
may  collect  and  give  a painty  effect  to  the  finish.  Outside  finish,  if  stained, 
should  be  treated  in  like  manner. 

Stained  and  hardwood  finish  usually  receive  an  application  of  wood  filler, 
two  coats  of  shellac  or  varnish,  each  of  which  is  rubbed  down  to  a dull  finish 
with  pumice  and  water.  Floors  may  have  an  application  of  linseed  oil,  and 
are  finished  with  hard  wax,  well  rubbed  in. 

The  above  treatments  vary  slightly  in  different  localities  and  according  to 
different  authorities. 

All  exterior  woodwork,  if  it  is  to  have  a natural  finish,  should  receive  a 
coat  of  wood  filler  and  one  or  two  coats  of  spar  varnish.  It  should  be  re- 
varnished every  year. 

Much  could  be  said  of  hardware  that  would  be  superfluous,  and  much  advice 
given  that  would  not  be  followed,  since  these  matters  must  be  decided  by 
individual  taste. 

Briefly,  all  hardware  should  be  good  in  design,  and  simple  and  effective 
in  its  working.  The  leaning  toward  simplicity  is  advisable,  because  it  lessens  the 
care,  if  for  no  other  reason. 

There  are  many  manufacturers  who  are  turning  out  excellent  designs,  both  new 
ones  and  reproductions  of  old  work.  1 heir  catalogues  aie  full  of  good  suggestions. 

As  to  material,  brass  comes  easily  first.  It  requires  some  attention  however,  and 
yet  for  front-door  fittings  nothing  could  be  better.  Bronze  is  effective,  and,  in 
several  ways,  superior  to  brass;  it  takes  care  of  itself,  and  requires  little  attention. 
Glass  knobs  are  made  in  many  interesting  and  novel  forms,  many  of  which  are 
excellent.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to  select  such  patterns  as  are  not 
likely  to  come  out  of  their  setting;  a knob  in  the  hand  is  hardly  worth  two  in 
the  door.  For  cheaper  work,  some  patterns  of  the  porcelain  knob  are  satisfactory. 

In  late  years  the  old-fashioned  knocker  has  received  a new  lease  of  life,  and 
some  very  good  reproductions  are  being  manufactured  from  which  to  select. 
Bell  pulls  may  get  out  of  order  and  batteries  run  dry,  but  the  door  knocker  can 
generally  be  relied  upon. 

All  door  hinges  should  be  of  the  “loose-joint”  pattern,  which  permits  the 
door  to  be  lifted  from  its  hangings.  In  heavy  doors  the  “loose-pin”  butt  is 
better  than  the  “loose-joint.”  The  pin  can  be  drawn  out  at  the  top,  making 
its  manipulation  in  unhanging  easier  than  with  the  other  pattern. 

It  is  best  not  to  include  the  cost  of  hardware  in  the  general  contract.  Far 
better  that  the  owner  select  the  hardware  in  the  presence  of  the  contractor  and 
pay  for  it  himself.  The  contractor  under  these  circumstances  can  give  con- 
siderable advice.  The  hardware  thus  purchased  can  then  be  set  by  him  as 
a part  of  his  contract. 

When  the  hardware  is  thus  furnished,  the  contractor  should  formally 
notify  the  owner,  at  least  two  weeks  in  advance  of  the  time  it  is  required,  so  as 
to  allow  for  any  reasonable  delay  in  filling  the  order. 


Old  Dutch  door  and  side  seats.  The  Bowne  House,  Flushing,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 


CHAPTER  V 
Doors  and  Doorways 

HE  origin  of  the  true  door  is  not  known,  nor  is  the  inquiry  of 
great  importance.  With  the  Greeks  the  doorway  signified  a 
“passage  of  air,’’  which  is  as  good  a definition  as  we  of  the 
present  day  can  give  it.  The  intervening  centuries  of  much 
cheerful  experience  with  the  door  have  tended  to  confirm  rather 
than  cancel  this  signification.  An  open  doorway  will  allow  of 
the  free  passage  of  more  air  than  of  people  in  a given  time; 
therefore  the  air  should  stand  godfather  to  the  door.  That  the  Greeks  appreci- 
ated this  fact  is  quite  evident,  and  testifies  to  their  keenness  of  perception. 

Like  all  other  essential  parts  of  the  house,  the  door  must  have  sprung  from 
necessity.  The  cave  man  rolled  stones  to  the  mouth  of  his  cave  to  protect  his 
household  from  the  dreaded  invasion-  of  animals.  Later,  man  built  habitations, 
perhaps  first  in  trees,  as  an  experiment,  and  to  be  safer  from  the  prowling 
menace.  With  these  first  habitations  the  door  may  well  have  begun.  Mr.  A.  B. 
C.,  tired  of  draughts  and  of  acting  as  a windbreak  to  the  rest  of  the  family, 
became  indignant,  went  out,  slew  a beast  and  hung  its  skin  up  over  his  rathole 
of  a doorway.  He  had  made  a door. 

Skins  were  probably  a very  long  time  in  use,  being  much  more  serviceable 
even  than  woven  stuffs,  which  were  not  introduced  until  a much  later  period. 
Even  in  feudal  times,  when  the  outer  door  had  grown  formidable  in  size  and 

80 


Doors  and  Doorways 


81 


strength,  the  inner  doorways  were  closed  by  means  of  heavy  hangings,  a custom 
still  popular. 

The  antique  door  was  pivoted  in  the  centre  and  revolved.  The  door  of 
Roman  antiquity  was  frequently  of  bronze,  especially  in  public  buildings.  The 
doors  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  usually  of  solid  oak  planking,  set  edge  to  edge 
and  dowelled,  the  whole  held  together  with  wrought-iron  bands  and  more  or  less 
ornamental  strap  hinges.  A modification  of  this  form  is  often  used  at  the  present 
time.  Frequently,  too,  these  doors  were  studded  with  nails,  having  huge  heads, 
driven  through  from  the  outside  and  clinched  on  the  inside.  The  hinges  were  held 
in  place  by  the  same  means.  The  doors  of  older  castles  were  made  narrow,  so  as 
to  allow  the  passage  of  only  one  person  at  a time.  This  gave  the  occupants  a 
decided  advantage  in  the  defence  of  the  stronghold.  The  portcullis,  which  was 
really  a door,  or  gate,  sliding  vertically,  was  usually  made  of  sufficient  width  for 
two  horsemen  to  pass  abreast. 

In  the  time  of  Christ  we  read  that  the  angel  rolled  the  stone  away  from  the 
entrance  to  the  tomb.  This  at  first  seems  quite  a task,  and  gives  it  a decided 
tinge  of  the  supernatural,  but  when  we  consider  that  the  stone  was  round  like  a 
cheese-box  and  rolled  in  a groove  cut 
into  the  rock,  the  task  seems  less  diffi- 
cult. 

The  panelled  door  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin,  dating  back  only 
to  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was,  nat- 
urally, in  Italy  that  the  door  was  first 
treated  as  a serious  architectural  prob- 
lem. We  find  many  fine  examples  of 
filteenth-century  Italian  in  which 
architraves,  or  casings,  of  harmoniously 
coloured  marbles  were  used.  Some 
were  severely  simple,  with  perhaps  the 
introduction  of  plain  marble  disks  at 
intervals  in  the  panelling,  with  simple 
friezes  and  caps.  Others,  much  more 
elaborate,  contained  carved  medallions, 
and  friezes  and  caps  of  a correspond- 
ing richness.  1 he  doors  themselves 
were,  in  the  better  examples,  inlaid. 

Some  of  these  are  most  beautiful  in  line 
and  colour. 

At  a later  date,  with  the  revival 
of  the  classic,  the  architrave  took  on 
the  form  of  the  column  and  cap  support- 
ing the  characteristic  pediment.  The 
pediment  thus  took  the  place  of  the  “over-door,”  and  was  frequently  very  elab- 
orate. Sometimes  the  over-door  effect  was  painted  on  the  flat  wall  surface,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  very  high  studded  rooms. 


Old  doorway  in  Washington  Street,  Boston,  Mass.  This 
example  is  somewhat  marred  by  the  more  recent  door  and  the 
ugly  bay  set  foolishly  on  top  of  the  hood. 


82  The  Country  House 

The  “over-door”  was  a feature  used  in  most  of  the  early  examples,  even  up  to 
about  a century  ago.  It  consisted  of  various  devices  intended  to  connect  the  door 
with  the  ceiling.  Sometimes  this  took  the  form  of  the  pediment;  sometimes 
columns  running  to  the  cornice  enclosed  elaborate  panels  over  the  door;  and 
sometimes,  too,  a window  or  transom  light  took  the  place  of  the  panel.  These 
motives  combined  with  the  window  motives  in  giving  apparent  support  to  the 
cornice  of  the  room. 

The  past  century  introduced  low  doors,  which  were  sometimes  pleasing  and 

more  often  not.  The  great  trouble  is 
that  the  low  doorway  is  simply  a hole 
in  the  wall,  without  any  architectual 
connection  with  the  lines  of  the  room. 
Of  course  it  would  be  unwise  to  empha- 
sise too  strongly  a door  which,  like  a 
closet  door,  was  unimportant  and  yet 
had  to  exist. 

Raphael  largely  influenced  the 
Italian  style  of  his  time  and,  in  fact, 
of  the  present  day.  Marquetry  was 
abandoned,  and  doors,  now  panelled, 
were  painted.  This  painting  was  much 
influenced  by  the  work  of  the  classic 
fresco  painters. 

While  Italy  embraced  the  classic 
tradition  and  made  free  use  of  it  in  her 
doors  and  doorways,  she  made  little 
use  of  wood  carving.  The  French,  on 
the  other  hand,  generally  avoided  the 
severe  lines  of  the  orders  and  adopted 
carving  to  a great  extent.  The  Italian 
style  was  severely  architectural,  while 
that  of  the  French  was  more  free  and 
buoyant.  Thus  the  temperament  of  a 
people  finds  expression  in  its  art. 
Architraves  were  usually  of  wood,  often  richly  carved — an  entablature  supported 
by  wooden  brackets — and  the  overdoor  motive  was  sometimes  a painting,  a paint- 
ing and  stucco  combined,  or  a bas-relief  and  carving.  During  the  earlier  Gothic 
period  France  created,  in  this  style,  some  delightful  specimens  of  design  and 
wood  carving,  vying  with  the  Germans  in  this  respect.  Gothic  being  par- 
ticularly the  style  of  the  carver,  great  variety  of  design  and  conception  was 
the  result. 

In  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  much  painting  was  used,  and  frequently 
combined  with  carving  in  a very  pleasing  way.  During  this  period,  too, 
locks  and  hinges  became  an  important  factor  of  the  design,  a revival  of 
the  mediaeval  idea.  Marvellous  creations  in  bronze  and  wrought  iron  were 
brought  forth. 


Doorway  of  old  Custom  house,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  This 
fine  example  has  a touch  of  the  Gothic  in  the  entablature.  It  is 
perhaps  a little  light  in  composition  with  brick. 


Doors  and  Doorways 


83 


The  influence  of  Gabriel  tended  to  simplify  the  rather  excessive  outbursts  of 
the  later  Louis  XV.  period;  carving  was  very  frequently  omitted  from  the  panelled 
door,  and  the  more  or  less  elaborate  painting  on  a gold  ground  was  introduced. 

In  the  style  of 
Louis  XVI.  a return 
of  classic  influence 
helped  to  temper 
the  perhaps  too  free 
treatment  of  the  pre- 
vious reign.  Beauti- 
ful details,  some- 
times flat  and 
sometimes  in  relief, 
were  controlled  by 
an  architectural 
basis  of  construc- 
tion, which  influ- 
enced and  directed 
the  main  scheme 
of  adornment. 

With  the  Ger- 
mans, those  mas- 
ters of  wood  carving, 
the  earlier  doors 
were  very  simple  in 
character,  and  the 
doorways  j u d i - 
ciously  ornamented 
in  the  style  of  the 
Gothic.  Carved 
panels  of  beautiful 
design  and  work- 
manship have  come 
from  their  hands. 

Gothic  carving 
reached  its  highest 
perfection  in  Ger- 
many during  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Oak 
was  mostly  used, 
and  the  earlier  ex- 
amples were  very 
low  in  relief.  Later', 
examples,  however, 

show  such  an  in-  ^ „ 

. 1 ’ll  1 Door  to  Hammond  House,  Annapolis,  Md.  A fine  example,  both  as  regards  proportion,  scale 

Ciease  111  Sic. ill  that  and  detail.  The  comnosition  is  good  and  the  masses  and  colour  well  adjusted 


84  The  Country  House 

the  already  growing  boldness  of  relief  was  carried  even  into  the  round,  in  cases 
where  this  was  possible. 

German  craftsmen  evidently  believed  in  paint,  as  many  of  these  carvings  were 
thus  embellished.  It  is  doubtful  if  such  a treatment  would  add  anything  to 
the  already  beautiful  texture  of  the  oak,  unless  perhaps  the  colours  were  much 
diluted  and  used  as  a sort  of  stain.  Even  then  they  were  better  used  sparingly, 
so  as  not  to  overbalance  the  natural  textural  beauty. 

Some  of  the  most  charmingly  individual  examples  of  Gothic  treatment  are 
to  be  found  in  northern  Tyrol,  where  the  German  influence  is  strong.  It  is 
wood  architecture  pure  and  simple,  with  a great  freedom  of  artistic  line  and 


Doorway  on  the  lines  of  the  Renaissance,  with  an  influence  of 
the  Elizabethan 


handling.  Door  posts,  heavy  and  crude, 
run  to  the  ceiling,  and  across  the  door 
head  runs  a shelf,  with  little  or  no  pro- 
jection beyond  the  posts.  A carved 
panel  surmounts  this,  and  small  bands 
of  geometric  carving  enrich  the  edge  of 
the  post-like  architrave.  The  door  itself, 
with  its  flattened  Tudor  arch,  is  per- 
haps two  panels  in  height,  perfectly 
plain,  and  devoid  of  any  moulding  save 
for  the  chamfered  edges  of  stiles  and 
rails. 

Some  examples  have  the  upper 
corners  of  the  door  clipped,  and  are 
solid,  with  fine  specimens  of  ornamental 
strap  hinges  and  locks.  The  archi- 
traves are  well-designed  Gothic  mould- 
ings, which  follow  the  outline  of  the 
door.  Often,  too,  in  the  later  works, 
where  the  wall  is  plastered  above  the 
wainscoting,  the  Gothic  door  head  took 
on  elaborate  forms  of  wood  carving, 
boldly  relieved  against  the  plastered  wall. 
These  are  but  a few  of  the  many  and 
varied  treatments. 

The  English  in  their  charming 
little  half-timber  houses  usually  treated 
the  door  in  a very  simple  manner. 
Carving  was  only  occasionally,  and  then 
sparingly,  used  on  exterior  door  posts. 
The  natural  wood,  which  was  generally 
oak,  was  counted  upon  for  effect. 

In  the  more  elaborate  edifices  of  the 
Elizabethan  style,  perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  exterior  door  was  that  of 
the  Tudor  Gothic.  Its  chief  character- 


Doors  and  Doorways 


85 


istic  was  the  low 
Gothic  arch,  the 
point  of  which  was 
usually  about  one 
third  of  the  span 
above  the  spring  or 
starting  point  of  the 
arch.  It  was  usually 
solid,  was  hung  on 
strap  hinges,  and 
frequently  divided 
into  simple  or  elab- 
orate panels  by 
strips  nailed  on  the 
side  opposite  the 
hinges.  The  door- 
way itself  had  often 
simply  moulded 
stone  jambs,  all 
within  the  line  of  the 
wall,  while  astride 
the  arch,  like  a sad- 
dle, sat  the  usual 
label  moulding  of 
the  English  Gothic. 
Interior  doors  were 
commonly  square 
headed,  and  were 
frequently  treated 
in  the  manner  of  the 
wainscoting  in  which 
they  came.  This 
treatment  served  to 
conceal  the  door  to 
a great  extent. 

Later  the  com- 
bination of  classic 
and  Gothic  pro- 
duced some  highly 
interesting  results,  as 
well  as  many  strik- 
ingly bad  ones.  The 
Classic  pilaster  sup- 
ported a Classic 
entablature,  in 
which  were  distrib- 


Doorway  in  the  Chase  House,  Annapolis,  Md.  A suggestive  example  of  the  Southern  Colonial. 
The  door  is  well  studied  in  mass  and  detail 


7 86  The  Country  House 

uted  Classic  and  Gothic  details.  Sometimes  the  Gothic  got  in  a telling  stroke; 
then  again  you  had  to  hunt  for  it.  One  striking  feature  is  the  terminal  pilaster,  in 

which  the  shaft  of  the  motive  ta- 
pers from  the  cap  toward  the  base. 
Some  good  effects  have  been  ob- 
tained with  its  use.  In  the  carving 
very  few  planes  were  used,  and  the 
effect  of  the  whole  is  rather  to- 
ward the  stiff  and  brutal,  although 
it  is  often  excellent,  and,  further,  is 
strictly  on  the  lines  of  wood  carving. 

At  a later  date  the  influence 
of  the  Italian  predominated,  but  it 
lacked  the  grace  and  beauty  of 
line  which  characterised  its  parent. 
1 his  was  the  Georgian  style.  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  did  much  to 
raise  this  degraded  style,  and 
several  examples  of  our  own  early 
work  are  attributed  to  him. 

The  term  “Colonial”  is  some- 
what misleading.  It  is  really  a 
copy  of  the  Georgian,  and  is,  in 
some  instances,  pure  Georgian. 
But  as  the  conditions  of  the  col- 
onies demanded  greater  simplicity, 
in  their  generally  poorer  condition 
and  problems  of  life,  they  were 
led  to  invent,  modify  and  devise 
motives  which  differed  materially  from  the  parent  style.  The  Southern  examples 
of  Maryland  and  Virginia  are  perhaps  nearer,  in  most  instances,  to  the  English 
models.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  New  England  examples  show  novel 
though  not  always  successful  treatment.  The  earliest  forms  were  of  course 
very  simple,  hardly  any  attempt  at  design  being  made.  Later  developments  were 
more  pretentious,  and  in  many  instances  suggestive  of  luxury. 

The  general  basis  of  design  being  Classic,  the  results  were  more  or  less 
severely  architectural,  some  examples  adhering  closely  to  Greek  and  Roman  pro- 
portions. More,  however,  deviated  in  the  Italian  direction,  and  these  were 
perhaps  the  most  pleasing.  The  more  successful  of  the  free  examples  have  a 
tendency  to  lightness  of  detail,  and  frequently  introduce  ornament  of  a Gothic 
character.  Those  leaning  toward  a heavy  treatment  are  generally,  unless  purely 
Classic,  clumsy  and  in  bad  taste.  The  principal  legacy  of  the  Dutch  settlers  was 
the  Dutch  door.  It  was  brought  with  them  from  the  fatherland,  and  seldom, 
if  at  all,  penetrated  either  to  the  South  or  East,  being  confined  to  the  vicinity 
of  its  introduction,  principally  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  This  door, 
which  was  always  exterior,  was  constructed  in  two  halves,  each  swinging  inde- 


An  adaptation  of  the  Japanese  at  Fall  River,  Mass.  Cram,  Wentworth  & 
Goodhue,  architects 


Doors  and  Doorways 


pendent  of  the  other  if  desired.  Thus  the  lower  half  could  remain  closed, 
while  the  upper  was  opened  for  light  and  air.  Provision  was  made  for  bolting 
the  two  halves  together  so  that  the  whole  thing  became  an  ordinary  door.  With 
this  very  handy  form  the  children  were  kept  in,  and  stray  pigs  and  chickens  out, 
while  the  door,  to  all  intent  and  purpose,  remained  open. 

Another  Dutch  notion  was  that  of  the  seats  flanking  either  side  of  the 
entrance.  These  were  used  with  and  without  the  porch  motive.  It  was  prob- 
ably from  this  source  that  Rip  Van  Winkle  first  learned  to  “tarry”;  hence,  old 
Tarrytown  should  have  been  well  supplied  with  this  commodity. 

The  Colonial  doorway  took  on  many  forms,  which  are  best  exemplified  in 
the  illustrations.  An  early  form  was  that  using  the  corner  block,  in  which  the 
architrave  received  into  its  corner  intersections  a square  ornamental  block.  In 
wooden  examples  where  the  baseboard  projected,  and  often  when  flush  with  the 
architrave,  this  last  member  was  set  on  a plain  base  of  sufficient  projection  to 
receive  the  baseboard.  Another  modern  treatment  was  to  enclose  the  whole  with 
a back  band  and  omit  the  base. 

From  the  nature  of  this  construc- 
tion, the  architraves  were  made 
symmetrical.  Later  came  the 
pilaster,  surmounted  by  either  the 
straight  cap  or  the  curved  or  seg- 
mental pediment  or  the  straight  or 
curved  “broken”  pediment.  Some- 
times the  pilaster  was  abandoned 
as  part  of  the  design  and  the  ped- 
iment, varying  in  form,  was  sup- 
ported by  brackets.  Another  form 
of  door  treatment  was  the  Vene- 
tian door.  This  consisted  of  three 
divisions  separated  by  two  mullions, 
the  larger  opening  of  which  formed 
the  windows  or  side  lights.  An  arch 
over  the  door  constituted,  with  this 
triple  arrangement,  what  is  termed 
the  “Palla  dian  motive,”  and  not 
infrequently  the  arch,  made  ellip- 
tical in  form,  spanned  the  three 
openings.  1 his  considerable  area 
of  glazing  offered  a chance  for 
beautiful  leaded  glass,  7 he  door 
itself  was  usually  simple  in  char- 
acter, no  carving  being  introduced 


except  in  the  panel  mouldings. 
Sometimes  the  montant  was  of 


The  old  Longfellow  doorway  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 


exti a width,  beaded  in  the  centre  to  suggest  double  doors.  This  was  used  only 
when  the  doorway  was  of  extra  width.  Such  treatment,  however,  is  hardly  to  be 


88 


The  Country  House 


commended,  as  a door  wide  enough  to  look  well  thus  treated  would,  under  ordinary- 
circumstances,  be  wide  enough  to  be  made  openly  a double  door. 

Those  who  may  be  tempted  by  the  fascinating  lines  of  the  Japanese  will  do  well 

to  study  the  original 
models;  for  while 
these,  in  their  existing 
form,  are  hardly 
practical  if  copied 
blindly,  they  never- 
theless suggest  great 
possibilities  in  adap- 
tation. The  style  is 
marked  for  its  bold 
and  graceful  lines 
and  its  elaborate  carv- 
ing contrasted  with 
plain  surfaces.  The 
usual  door  is  simple 
in  its  lower  half,  and 
has  inserted  in  its  up- 
per half  a carved  and 
perforated  panel  of 
teak. 

Early  outside 
doors  in  America 
were  usually  hung  on 
strong,  substantial, 
iron  strap  hinges, 
with  box  locks,  and 
were  further  re- 
inforced by  a door  bar 
of  oak,  which  swung 
on  a bolt  from  the 
hinge  side  of  the  door 
into  a socket  on  the 
other  side. 

As  has  already 
been  stated,  very 
early  doors,  being 
hung  on  a pivot, 
revolved,  and  are 
termed  pivot  doors.  I he  hinge  superseded  the  pivot,  and  has  been  used  in  one 
form  or  another  ever  since.  The  box  lock  (which  was  attached  to  the  outside 
of  the  lock  rail)  has  continued  in  use  on  the  Continent,  but  has  been  replaced 
in  England  and  America  by  the  mortise  lock.  The  mortise  lock  was  introduced 
into  England  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


Street  entrance  to  Royal  House,  Medford,  Mass.  This  doorway  is  almost  perfect, 
proportions  and  mouldings  are  simple  and  good 


The 


Doors  and  Doorways 


89 


A sash  door  is  one  which  is  glazed  in  the  upper  portion;  it  may  or  may 
not  be  a sliding  sash. 

A “jib”  or  “concealed  door”  is  made  flat  with  the  wall,  has  no  architrave 
and  is  intended  to  be 
unnoticed.  It  is  used 
when  it  is  necessary 
to  preserve  the  sym- 
metry of  the  room, 
as  in  a closet  or 
other  unimportant 
doors.  These  doors 
are  hung  on  pivots 
instead  of  hinges  in 
the  manner  of  some 
of  the  early  cabinets. 

They  are  now  little 
used,  as  their  chief 
auxiliaries,  the  secret 
passage  and  stair- 
case, are  things  of  the 
past. 

The  “swing 
door”  is  hung  with 
double-action  hinges, 
and,  having  no  strik- 
ing piece,  swings 
freely  both  ways. 

Instead  of  the  double 
action  hinges  a strip 
the  width  of  the  door 
and  a couple  of 
inches  wide  can  be 
hung  to  the  door 
frame  in  the  ordinary 
way.  The  door  in 
turn  is  hung  to  this 
strip,  with  the  hinges 
on  the  opposite  side 
from  the  first  set.  To 
this  is  added  a coil 
spring  for  each  set  of 
hinges,  in  order  that  the  door  may  remain  shut  when  not  in  use.  In  the  private 
house  the  swing  door  is  commonly  used  as  a means  of  communication  between 
the  kitchen  and  dining  room;  in  this  case  the  upper  part  should  be  glazed,  so 
that  the  approach  of  persons  can  be  readily  detected  from  the  other  side. 
Ground  or  stained  glass  may  be  used,  but  it  is  advisable  to  have  a certain  amount 


Courtyard  entrance  to  Royal  House.  This  example  is  interesting  from  the  point  of  its 
strong  simplicity 


go 


The  Country  House 


of  plain  glass  which  shall  enable  one  to  see  clearly.  If  the  house  is  large 
enough,  and  the  service  demands  it,  two  separate  doors  should  be  provided, 
one  to  be  used  for  entrance  and  the  other  for  exit. 

The  “weather  doors,”  used  in  winter  to  reinforce  the  outside  door  in 

keeping  out  storm  and  cold,  are  com- 
monly batten  doors  of  plain  matched 
stuff,  with  a makeshift  sash,  perhaps, 
screwed  against  a hole  in  the  upper 
half.  That  this  is  ugly  and  unneces- 
sary goes  without  saying,  and  more 
especially  if  it  forms  the  entrance  to 
the  “dog  house”  usually  tacked  about 
the  front  door.  Here  is  a chance  to 
use  as  close  models  some  of  the  strongly 
simple  examples  of  either  the  Middle 
Ages  or  the  New  England  Colonial. 
Where  there  is  no  vestibule,  the 
weather  door  and  the  outside  door 
coming  together  are  awkward  to  handle, 
resulting  often  in  jammed  fingers  and 
other  little  pleasantries.  A better  plan 
is  to  have  a vestibule  and  two  well- 
separated  doors.  The  inner  outside 
door  can  be  made  more  delicate  in 
design  than  the  outer,  or  weather  door, 
which  may  be  of  the  Dutch  pattern. 
With  this  arrangement  the  inner  door 
becomes  practically  an  inside  door, 
hence  the  reduction  in  scale  of  details 
is  possible.  In  pleasant  weather  the 
outer  door  could  remain  open  (or  half  of  it  if  a Dutch  door),  and  in  the  winter 
and  stormy  weather  it  could  be  closed.  Another  fault,  where  the  two  doors  are 
together,  is  that  the  outer  must  of  necessity  swing  out,  and,  while  having  some 
advantages  in  repelling  the  weather,  is  very  apt  to  stick,  and,  when  suddenly 
opened,  upset  some  portly  caller  over  backward  and  down  the  steps.  One  can- 
not expect  one’s  friends  to  appreciate  such  treatment.  The  real  objection  to  the 
swinging  in  of  the  outside  door  is  that  its  construction  allows  for  the  accumu- 
lation of  rain  and  snow  in  the  doorway,  which,  becoming  frozen,  is  a bother  and 
hindrance  in  opening  the  door.  An  extended  porch  or  piazza  might  prevent  this 
to  a certain  extent,  but  in  its  absence  there  are  those  who  may  be  willing 
to  risk  the  bones  of  others  and  prefer  that  the  door  swing  outward.  This 
may  be  easily  prevented  by  having  enough  glass  in  the  upper  panel  to 
enable  one  to  see  who  or  what  may  be  outside;  side  lights  may  answer 
the  purpose,  but  they  are  less  direct.  A still  better  idea  is  to  have  a 
wrought-iron  or  bronze  grating  on  the  outside,  and  the  glazing  behind  it  in 
the  form  of  a swinging  or  sliding  sash.  The  pedlar  who  is  wont  to  shove 


Interior  doorway  at  “Gunston  Hall,”  Virginia.  A good 
example  of  the  straight,  interrupted  pediment.  A bust  is  sup- 
posed to  occupy  the  space  at  the  top 


Doors  and  Doorways  91 

his  way  into  the  house  is  thus  taken  care  of,  and  even  the  persistent  book  agent 
is  held  at  bay. 

Door  stops  are  too  well  known  to  need  much  description;  they  are  generally 
of  wood,  and  are  screwed  into  the  baseboard  to  prevent  the  door  swinging  against 
the  wall.  They  are  hardly  ornamental, 
owing  to  the  position  in  which  they  are 
placed,  and  thould  be  kept  of  the  same 
colour  as  the  baseboard.  They  are 
now  frequently  made  of  brass,  but  it 
does  not  seem  that  their  importance 
should  be  emphasised  by  the  use  of  this 
metal.  They  have,  however,  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  made  in  longer  sizes, 
which  may  answer  in  special  cases. 

The  “double  door”  consists  of  two 
doors  hung  from  opposite  jambs,  swing- 
ing so  as  to  engage  each  other  in  clos- 
ing or  opening  the  door.  They  are 
usually  hung  with  loose  joint  butts,  so 
that  they  can  be  removed  if  desired. 

One  half  is  provided  with  a bolt  top 
and  bottom,  which,  set  into  the  edge 
of  the  stile,  engages  the  sockets  set  into 
the  threshold  and  the  top  jamb.  The 
other  half  carries  the  lock  which  en- 
gages the  first  half.  I his  arrangement 
allows  of  the  first  half  being  bolted, 
while  the  second  half  can  be  used  as  a 
single  door.  A small  moulding  is  affixed 
to  the  face  of  the  inner  style  of  the  second  half,  projecting  beyond  the  edge  so 
as  to  break  the  vertical  joint  between  both  halves  when  closed. 

About  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the  mortise  lock  came  the  “sliding 

O 

door.”  Its  general  appearance  is  that  of  the  double  door,  only  instead  of 
swinging  it  slides  into  wall  pockets  on  either  side,  thus  being  entirely  out  of  the  way. 
This  treatment,  of  course,  increases  the  thickness  of  the  partition,  which  is 
constructed  of  two  rows  of  studs  set  flatwise,  so  spaced  that  the  finished  parti- 
tion would  be  about  9 inches  from  plastering  to  plastering.  The  inside  of  the 
pockets  should  be  sheathed  with  £-inch  matched  sheathing,  as  a protection  against 
dust  and  draught.  Stops  should  also  be  utilised  to  keep  the  doors  from  sliding 
too  far  back  into  the  pockets.  Early  examples  were  let  into  a rabbet  at  the  head 
and  rolled  on  small  brass  tracks  set  on  the  floor.  The  best  modern  method 
hangs  them  from  overhead  tracks,  which  does  away  with  the  stumbling  block 
on  the  floor.  Often  this  small  track  is  retained  to  steady  the  motive,  and  in 
modern  work  is  but  very  little  in  the  way.  When  closed  they  are  fastened  by 
an  especially  designed  mortise  lock  which  is  operated  by  a sunken  knob  or  other 
arrangement. 


Interior  doorway  at  “ Whitehall,”  Maryland.  A beautifully  rich 
example  of  Colonial  work 


92 


The  Country  House 


The  sliding  door  has  some  advantages  over  the  double  swinging  door.  When 
open,  it  is  out  of  the  way  entirely  and  does  not  occupy  wall  space,  which  is  the 
case  with  the  double  swinging  door.  The  modern  room  of  moderate  dimen- 
sions, in  which  the  swinging  doors  are  installed,  loses  practically  the  whole  side 
as  a satisfactory  background,  and  the  floor  space  within  the  radius  of  their  swing 
is  absolutely  useless.  Ordinarily,  perhaps,  the  doors  would  not  be  often  open, 
though  this  would  depend  largely  on  the  frequency  with  which  the  occupants 
of  the  house  entertain.  But  sliding  doors  have  most  important  advantages  : 
they  permit  of  the  circulation  of  fresh  air  without  danger  of  banging.  The 
closed  swinging  door  is  far  less  healthy,  and  is,  moreover,  an  awkward  thing  at 
the  best.  When  opened  to  its  fullest  extent,  especially  in  a small  room,  it  fre- 
quently infringes  upon  half  the  available  wall  space. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  swinging  door  is  easier  to  keep  closed,  and  is  more 
truly  architectural  in  all  positions  than  is  the  sliding  door.  One  finds  its  easy 
movement,  in  opening  and  closing,  hardly  retarding  to  one’s  passage  when  in  a 
hurry,  while  the  sliding  door  works  more  heavily  and  requires  a special  effort 

to  open  and  close  it.  We  have  men- 
tioned these  things,  not  with  the  idea 
of  forming  a prejudice  against  either 
style,  but  to  show  the  shortcomings  of 
each,  that  the  builder  may  choose  between 
them  in  special  cases.  In  the  planning 
of  a house,  the  swing  of  a door  should 
be  indicated  on  the  plan  to  show  its  full 
latitude. 

The  “batten  door”  is  usually  made 
of  l stock,  tongued  and  grooved  and 
secured  by  battens  on  one  side;  one  at 
the  top,  one  at  the  bottom  and  perhaps 
one  in  the  middle,  with  a diagonal  brace 
if  necessary.  These  braces,  or  battens, 
are  best  secured  by  means  of  screws. 
They  are  used  where  any  rough  door  is 
required,  as  inside  cellar  doors  or  bulk- 
head doors.  In  the  latter  case,  care 
should  be  taken  to  give  it  a sufficient 
pitch  to  shed  the  water.  Ordinarily  they 
are  hinged  at  the  side  and  let  into  a 
rabbet  on  three  jambs,  which  often 
allows  rain  and  melting  snow  to  freeze 
up  the  joints.  This  may  not  be,  in  some 
localities,  a serious  objection,  yet  it  seems 
as  if  the  accepted  construction  of  the 
bulkhead  door  is  far  from  perfect. 
About  the  only  safeguard  is  to  pitch  the  door  as  much  as  possible  so  that  water 
will  run  off  quickly  and  snow  will  be  less  liable  to  lodge. 


Fig.  1 I.  Diagram  showing  parts  of  an  ordinary  panel-door 


A.  Door  a.  Door  styles 

B.  Door  frame  b.  Top  rail 

C.  Casing  or  architrave  c.  Middle  or  lock  rail 

D.  Threshold  d.  Bottom  rail 

e.  Panel 


f.  Panel  moulding 

g.  Back  band 

h.  Wall 

k.  Floor  line 


Doors  and  Doorways  93 

It  is  always  better,  on  account  of  weight,  to  build  bulkhead  doors  in  two 
halves,  unless  the  width  be  fairly  narrow.  The  joint  between  the  two  halves 
should  be  broken  by  a weather  strip  to 
exclude  moisture. 

A recent  scheme,  which  is  de- 
signed to  do  away  with  the  bulkhead, 
places  the  cellar  entrance  under  a flight 
of  inside  stairs,  in  such  a way  that  the 
necessary  head  room  is  obtained  to 
allow  of  the  outer  door  being  made  a 
vertical  or  ordinary  door.  This  places 
the  steps  on  the  inside  of  the  cellar 
wall.  The  idea  is  excellent,  but  can- 
not always  be  adopted  owing  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  plan. 

Another  method  is  to  enclose 
the  outside  cellar  steps  with  a small 
house.  This  often  may  be  most 
effective  as  to  looks,  as  it  surely  is  in 
convenience,  but  it  usually  has  the 
appearance  of  a huge  and  ugly  dog 
house,  unless  carefully  handled. 

Screen  doors  should  not  be  of 
the  usual  stock  pattern,  as  they  will 
kill  any  design  that  was  ever  made. 

It  is  better  to  have  the  architect  design 

them  while 
he  is  doing 

the  house.  They  then  stand  a chance  of  being  har- 
monious. I hey  should  be  light  and  simple,  yet  strong 
enough  to  prevent  the  children  from  falling  through 
them. 

I he  ordinary  panel  door  is  usually  two  panels 
high  and  two  wide;  this  type  is  taken  for  conve- 
nience, only  (see  Fig.  n).  Its  flanking  vertical  members 
are  called  “stiles,”  and  the  central  vertical  member  is 
called  the  “montant  or  centre  stile.”  Often  this 
member  is  omitted,  as  in  the  case  of  horizontal  pannel- 
ling.  The  horizontal  members  are  the  “top  rail,”  “mid- 
dle” or  “lock  rail  ” and  the  “ bottom  rail.”  Early  panel 
doors  were  put  together  by  cutting  mortises  through 
the  stiles  and  inserting  the  tenons  cut  in  the  ends  of 
the  rails  (see  Fig.  12).  They  were  kept  in  place  by 
wooden  pins.  Now  as  wood  shrinks  hardly  at  all  in 
the  direction  of  the  grain,  and  considerably  in  other  directions,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  tenons  and  pins  soon  became  much  in  evidence.  This  fact  evidently 


Fig.  12.  Old  and  new  methods  of 
door  construction 
a.  Rail  b.  Stile  c.  Mortise  line 
cl.  Pins  x.  Wedge 


94 


The  Country  House 


annoyed  the  finer  senses  of  the  public,  or  perhaps  the  door  builder  did  some  in- 
venting to  outdo  competitors,  which  is  more  likely.  However  this  may  be,  the 
better  door  of  the  present  day  has  the  mortise  made  so  as  not  to  run  through  the 

stile;  and  the  tenon, 
split  in  the  middle  for 
the  insertion  of  a 
wedge,  is  coated  with 
glue  and  forced  into 
place.  It  is  readily 
seen  (see  Fig.  12) 
that  this  makes  a 
most  effective  joint, 
and  yet  one  almost, 
if  not  quite,  regrets 
the  pins,  from  an 
artistic  standpoint, 
which  show  clearly  its 
manner  of  construc- 
tion. 

The  door  is  hung 
on  hinges  from  the 
“frame,”  which  in 
turn  is  nailed  to  the 
door  studs  on  either 
side.  The  old  meth- 
od of  treating  the 
frame  was  to  rabbet 
for  the  door;  in  later 
work  a stop,  or  strik- 
ing piece,  was  fas- 
tened to  the  inside, 
thus  forming  the 
rabbet.  Of  the  two 
methods,  each  has  an 
advantage.  1 he  stop 
admits  of  hanging 
the  door  on  either 
side  of  the  partition 
at  will;  but  unless  it 
is  very  well  put  on  it 
is  apt  to  gape  open, 
thus  leaving  a crack  through  from  one  room  to  the  other.  The  old  form  has  not 
this  disadvantage,  but  the  door  cannot  be  changed  from  one  side  of  the  casing  to 
the  other  without  a great  amount  of  trouble;  however,  it  is  perhaps  the  better  for 
serious  work.  Whichever  method  is  employed,  the  frame  is  best  made  from 
2-inch  stock;  closet  doors  can  be  made  slightly  lighter  if  desired. 


Vestibule  door  at  Alexandria,  Va.  An  interesting  treatment,  but  somewhat  difficult  to 
keep  clean  on  top 


95 


Doors  and  Doorways 


In  the  beginning  the  plans  should  be  well  gone  over,  and  the  swing  of 
every  door  determined.  As  their  swing  is  usually  marked  on  the  plans,  there 
should  be  no  mistake.  This  should  be  most  carefully  thought  out,  not  only 


with  reference  to  con- 


venience in  opening 
and  shutting  but  with 
a view  as  to  what  it  is 
liable  to  strike  or 
displace,  in  the  way 
of  furniture,  pictures 
or  other  wall  orna- 
ments. It  may  be 
desirable  to  give  the 
entering  guest  his 
first  impression  of  a 
room  in  some  par- 
ticular direction,  and 
the  door  should  swing 
opposite  to  this  to 
enforce  its  notice. 
All  other  things  being 
equal,  this  can  be 
taken  advantage  of, 
although  never  to  the 
sacrifice  of  conve- 
nience. On  general 


principles 


doors 
should  open  inward, 
so  that  the  guest  is 
not  obliged  to  step 
back  in  his  natural 
passage  from  the 
open  air  to  the  hall, 
the  hall  to  the  recep- 
tion room,  the  recep- 
tion room  to  the  liv- 
the  living 
dining 


ing  room, 
room  to  the 
room,  and  so  on.  He 
should  be  made  to 
feel  that  his  welcome 
was  cordial  rather  than  restrained.  Chamber,  bathroom  and  toilet  should  always 
open  in.  No  door  should  open  into  a passage,  other  than  a closet  door,  which 
always  opens  toward  the  outside.  It  is  inadvisable  to  swing  a door  over  a 
register  or  against  a radiator;  the  veneered  door  might  possibly  stand  it  for  a 
while,  but  it  is  tempting  inevitable  fate. 


Ml  rwl  'i  ~i  f iMBWii 


Doorway  at  “Whitehall,”  Maryland.  This  beautiful  example  is  somewhat  marred  by  the 
upper  four  panels  of  the  door,  which  seem  to  be  of  later  date  and  set  in  like  a sash 


9 6 


The  Country  House 


Returning  to  the  door  structure:  The  frame  is  secured  to  the  door  studs  on 
the  inside  of  opening,  and  any  deficiency  between  the  frame  and  studs  is  furred 
in  at  the  point  of  nailing.  It  is  well  to  see  that  the  door  frame  is  placed  in 

the  centre  between  the  stud  opening  or, 
better,  the  room,  as,  in  case  there  be  much 
play  between  them,  any  attempt  to  disre- 
gard this  and  nail  one  side  of  the  door 
frame  to  the  stud  would  result  in  a slight 
throwing  off  centre  of  the  whole  doorway. 
Ordinarily,  perhaps,  this  might  make  little 
difference,  but  an  over  door  of  some  de- 
signs is  apt  to  be  found  noticeably  out 
with  ceiling  decorations  or  panelling  and 
the  flanking  wall  motives  of  an  academic 
or  balanced  plan.  The  architrave  is  ad- 
justed by  fastening  one  edge  to  the  door 
frame  and  the  other  to  the  door  stud. 
The  back  band  is  the  outermost  member, 
and  is  rabbetted  to  fit  over  the  architrave, 
forming  in  design  a part  of  it  (see  Fig. 
13).  From  its  character  and  position  the 
back  band  adds  strength  and  colour  to 
the  doorway,  and  relieves  it  of  a certain 
flatness.  Practically  it  receives  the  butting 
of  the  base  and  dado  moulding. 

Door  panels,  especially  of  soft  wood, 
are  apt  to  shrink  considerably,  and  if 
hindered  in  shrinking  will  crack.  It  is 
therefore  advisable  in  adjusting  the  panel  mouldings  that  they  should  be  naiied 
into  the  stile  and  rail  rather  than  into  the  panelling,  as  in  addition  to  cracking 
they  are  liable  to  pull  away  from  the  stile  and  leave  ugly  gaps  in  following  the  panel. 
As  such  springing  is  only  possible  in  the  centre  of  the  panel,  since  the  ends 

are  held  in  place  by  the  return  mould- 
ing, it  is  readily  seen  that  what  is  liable 
to  happen  to  that  panel  is  likely  to  be 
annoying  enough.  1 he  nailing  into  the 
panel  at  its  ends  is  less  liable  to  be 
attended  with  evil  results,  but  this  should 
be  done  in  the  centre  only,  for  obvious 
reasons.  A vertical  panel  is  termed  a 
“standing  panel”;  a horizontal  one,  a 
“lying  panel.” 

Thresholds  or  door  sills  are  usu- 
ally of  •§■  stock,  preferably  of  oak  or  maple,  but  selected  close-grained  hard  pine 
makes  the  next  best  thing.  They  should  be  considered  as  regulating  the  swing 
of  the  door  from  the  floor,  and  as  such  should  be  thick  enough  to  keep  the  door 


Old  doorway  at  Deerfield,  Mass.  A fine  suggestion  for 
modern  Colonial  work 


Architrave  Boor- it  He  — x-  ■ 7door-panet  - 


Fig.  13.  Fine  examples  of  Colonial  architraves  and  door 
mouldings  with  raised  panels 


97 


Doors  and  Doorways 


amply  clear  of  rugs,  mats,  etc.  Exterior  door  sills  should  be  rabbeted  on  the 
tread  or  top  to  prevent  rain  and  other  moisture  from  entering  the  house. 
These  door  sills  are  best  made  from  2-inch  stock. 

Of  the  softer  woods,  clear 
white  pine  makes  the  best  door. 

Whitewood  doors  are  cheaper 
and  frequently  take  stain  well, 
but  they  should  be  avoided  on 
account  of  the  way  in  which  they 
warp  and  twist.  I he  ordinary 
door  is  usually  of  i\  to  2-inch 
stock.  It  is  not  advisable  to 
make  even  closet  doors  less  than 
the  former.  Some  closets  de- 
mand it,  but  a thin  door  is  gen- 
erally too  thin  for  the  mortise 
lock,  and  every  door  should  have 
a lock  of  some  kind.  The  solid 
hardwood  door  is  not  to  be 
recommended  on  account  of  the 
high  temperature  of  our  houses; 
anything  but  a veneered  door 
will  warp.  I he  solid  door  is 
also  heavy.  Sometimes  hard- 
wood doors  are  made  of  two 
thicknesses;  this  is  not  as  good 
as  the  three-piece  veneered  type. 

It  is  better  to  make  all  doors, 
outside  of  pine,  of  the  veneered 
type;  those  of  the  interior  can 
be  made  with  veneer  on 

panels  and  f-inch  on  stiles  and 
rails.  The  panel  mouldings 
should  be  solid,  while  the  jambs 
or  edges  should  be  of  from  i 

C i — ( 

to  |-inch  stock,  all  of  which  should  be  built  upon  a core  or  body  of  white 
pine.  This  is  the  three-piece  door;  a five-piece  being  constructed  by  the  use  of  a 
double  layer  of  veneer  on  each  side,  in  which  case  the  grains  of  the  wood 
should  run  in  opposition. 

The  five-piece  door  is,  of  course,  more  expensive  and  naturally  better,  and 
is  to  be  recommended  for  outside  doors,  where  the  heat  on  one  side  and  the 
cold  on  the  other  are  sure  to  do  things  with  the  most  carefully  planned  of 
man’s  contrivances.  If  the  core  of  the  outside  door  be  made  of  “staves”  or 
strips  glued  together  instead  of  the  solid  core,  it  is  better.  In  the  building  of 
all  veneered  doors  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  panel  moulding  fully 
covers  the  joint  between  the  veneer  and  the  door  (see  Fig.  14).  If  this  is  not 


An  interior  doorway  influenced  by  the  style  of  Louis  XV.  and  XVI. 


9$  The  Country  House 

done  it  suffers  in  looks,  and  in  the  ease  of  the  outside  example  exposes  the  joint  to 
the  tender  mercies  of  the  weather. 

1 ransoms  are  sometimes  used  over  doors  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation. 
When  used  they  should  be  large  enough  to  pay  for  putting  them 
in;  the  glass  should  not  be  less  than  12  inches  high.  They  are 
sometimes  hung  in  the  centre  of  the  ends  or  at  the  bottom;  in  any 
event  they  are  controlled  by  means  of  adjustable  openers. 

In  the  house  of  moderate  cost,  stock  doors  (for  the  interior) 
will  save  something  in  expense,  but  they  ought  not  to  be  used  as 
outside  doors  unless  of  exceptional  construction,  as  the  best  of 
this  sort  is  none  too  good  or  too  well  equipped  to  stand  the  test 
to  which  they  are  subjected.  In  suggesting  the  stock  door,  it  is  only 
with  the  idea  that  it  may  be  used  in  the  simple  and  less  archi- 
tectural efforts,  and  even  then  the  architect  should  have  a hand  in 
their  selection.  Wherever  possible  the  door  should  be  designed 
especially  for  the  place,  as  any  creditable  effort  is  likely  to  be 
utterly  ruined  by  the  introduction  of  a foreign  motive. 

Doors  are  usually  2'  10"  by  7'  o",  but  it  is  better  that  they 
be  3'  o"  wide  except  in  the  case  of  the  closet  door,  which  may  be 
narrower.  Some  authorities  claim  that  when  a doorway  is  over 

3'  6"  the  door  should  be 
double.  This  seems  to  be 
hardly  practical,  as  it  requires 
both  doors  to  be  opened  in 
order  that  the  ordinary  per- 
son may  pass  comfortably.  If  it  is  desirable 
to  increase  the  ordinary  opening  to  3'  6" 
the  single  door  will  stand  it.  Sometimes  the 
4'  o"  door  is  made  to  swing,  but  with  a con- 
siderable strain  on  the  hangings.  Such  door 
had  better  be  slid,  and  if  the  swinging  door 
is  insisted  upon  the  increase  to  5'  o"  is  slight, 
and  the  double  door  may  be  used.  The  3'  6" 
door,  however,  is  the  limit;  it  is  the  largest 
for  swinging  and  the  smallest  for  sliding 
doors.  Wide  doors  can  be  slid,  but  an  8-foot 
opening  ought  not  to  be  a common  thorough- 
fare, unless,  perhaps,  the  doors  are  to  be 
kept  generally  open. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  lay  down  any 
fixed  rules  as  regards  the  size  of  doors  as 
elements  of  design.  A 3'  o"  by  7'  o"  or 
7'  6"  door  looks  well  if  rightly  treated.  On 
general  principles  a doorway  6'  o"  wide  by 
7'  6"  high  is  easier  of  treatment  than  one  where  the  opening  is  square  or  the 
width  excedes  the  height.  There  is,  perhaps,  a tendency  to  go  to  extremes  in 


Fig.  14.  The 
veneered  door, 
showing  good  and 
bad  construction 

a.  Panel 

b.  Moulding 

c.  Veneer 

d.  Door  body 


99 


Doors  and  Doorways 

double-door  openings.  People  who  entertain  about  four  times  a year  wish  to 
knock  out  partitions  in  order  that  the  house  may  be  “open”  to  the  guest.  Under 
any  circumstances  there  is  a lack  of 
privacy  about  this,  which  one  is  sorry 
to  note  as  entirely  “American.” 

In  the  architectural  treatment  of 
doors  and  doorways,  it  ought  always 
to  be  remembered  that  they  are  a very 
important  part  of  the  composition  and 
should  be  made  harmonious  and  tie 
in  with  the  rest  of  the  scheme.  Im- 
portant doors  should  be  so  emphasised 
as  to  be  found  when  wanted,  while 
closet  doors  and  the  like  should  be 
kept  subservient  to  the  rest  of  the  gen- 


to  the  parlour  and  the  other  to  a 
closet,  it  is  not  good  design.  One  does 
not  care  to  waste  one’s  sweetness  on  the 
depths  of  a closet  when  one  is  expecting 
to  strike  the  hostess  dumb  with  envy. 

It  is  better  to  keep  the  height  of  all 
doorways  in  one  room  the  same,  in 
which  case  closet  doors  may  be  pan- 
elled in  the  interval;  the  same  use  may  be  made  of  the  transom.  There  should 
be  some  sort  of  studied  relation  between  the  height  of  the  doors,  windows  and 
mantels.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  English  Gothic,  the  unimportant  doors  occurred 
in  the  wainscoting,  being  panelled  in  the  same  manner,  and  having  no  distinc- 
tive architrave  or  conspicuous  hardware.  This  takes  care  of  the  problem  very 
satisfactorily  in  one  way,  but  the  door  should  not  be  so  entirely  hidden  that  one 
must  consult  a plan  of  the  house  to  tell  where  it  is. 

It  is  perhaps  not  putting  it  too  strongly  to  say:  A T ever  make  a doorway 

without  a door!  There  may  be  exceptions,  but  there  generally  comes  a time  when 
it  is  desirable,  if  not  absolutely  imperative,  that  the  ctpening  be  closed.  This  may 
be  accomplished  through  the  agency  of  the  sliding  door,  which  takes  up  no  desirable 
space  and  yet  is  ready  when  called  upon. 


eral  scheme.  If  two  doors  are  placed 
in  a wall  in  such  a way  as  to  balance 
one  another,  they  would  naturally  be 
treated  the  same.  If  one  of  these  leads 


A modern  doorway  at  Arlington,  Mass.  It  is  based  on  the  old 
example  shown  on  opposite  page 


I 


A modern  treatment  of  the  circular  window  bay.  Andrews,  Jaques  & Rantoul,  architects 


CHAPTER  VI 


Windows  and  Window  Motives 

[HE  first  windows  were  simply  holes,  and  unglazed.  They  were 
naturally  small,  as  those  living  in  the  open  air  did  not  require 
large  ones.  The  windows  in  southern  countries,  too,  required 
but  small  area,  owing  to  the  intensity  of  the  light;  the  reverse 
is  true  in  the  more  northerly  localities.  Classic  Greece  and 
the  later  Roman  Empire  used  the  window  hut  sparingly.  1 he 
prevalent  form  of  ancient  dwelling  was  built  with  a court  in 
the  centre;  the  windows  opened  upon  this  court.  In  the  Pompeian  dwelling 
the  windows,  located  on  the  court  side,  were  high  from  the  ground  and  in  a 
measure  protected  from  the  weather  by  the  projection  of  the  cornice. 

Windows  have  followed  the  general  outlines  and  peculiarities  of  the  door- 
ways, and  with  the  use  of  glass  were  subdivided  in  many  and  varied  forms. 
With  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  square-headed  form  became 
common  and,  with  the  Gothic,  very  elaborately  designed  tracery  was  employed. 

Glass  was  little  used  by  the  Romans,  although  its  manufacture  was  known 
to  the  Egyptians  about  2,000  years  B.  C.,  and  perhaps  much  earlier.  However, 
their  climate  hardly  required  it,  and  by  them  it  was  used  in  the  form  of  \essels. 
Glass  was  first  used  in  England,  for  the  glazing  of  windows,  about  1180.  Stained 
glass  is  claimed  to  have  existed  as  earlv  as  the  year  1000,  but  nothing  definite  is 
known  until  the  opening  of  the  twelfth  century. 


100 


Windows  and  Window  Motives 


IOI 


Except  for  the  Spanish  in  Florida  and  southern  California,  the  French  in 
Louisiana,  the  Dutch  in  New  York  and  the  Swedes  in  Delaware,  the  influence 
in  the  United  States  was  that  of  the  English  down  to  the  latter  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  forms  of  windows  were  generally  simple,  and  as  the  English 
copied  largely  from  the  Italian  revival,  many  of  the  better  forms  are  from 
this  source. 

One  of  the  first  considerations  in  regard  to  windows  is  their  location  in  the 
room.  They  must  admit  light  and  air;  they  must  give  a clear  outlook,  and  yet 
not  rob  one  of  one’s  privacy.  If  your  estate  be  small  it  is  not  well  that  your 
neighbour  should  be  able  to  tell  by  casual  observation  (through  an  opera  glass) 
whether  the  label  on  your  smoked  ham  be  that  of  Swift  or  another,  or  that 
the  game  piece  on  your  dining-room  wall  be  a genuine  “Old  Master”  or  a chromo. 
Hangings  will  do  much,  but  it  is  not  well  that  they  should  become  an  absolute 
necessity.  Another  thing,  and  an  all-important  one,  is  the  relation  of  the  window 
to  the  furniture.  Piano  backs  do  not  look  well  from  without,  to  say  nothing  of 
their  effect  from  the  inside.  Chairs,  sofas,  sideboards,  beds  and  the  like  should 
be  provided  for.  If  they  are  not  considered,  they  have  an  awkward  habit  of 
getting  under  foot  and  of  destroying 
what  might  have  been  otherwise  a well- 
calculated  lay-out.  Some  people  have 
an  idea  that  to  pepper  the  windows  in 
with  arcade-like  regularity  means  good 
lighting.  Perhaps  it  does,  but  a home 
is  not  a public  school.  There  is  such 
a thing  as  too  much  light,  all  supposition 
to  the  contrary,  and  there  is  also  danger 
in  too  little,  which  is,  perhaps,  after  all, 
the  greater  evil. 

There  is  much  diverse  opinion  as 
to  whether  windows  should  be  dis- 
tributed or  brought  together  in  one 
motive.  One  argument  in  favour  of  the 
latter  plan  is  that  the  light  is  more 
concentrated  and  that  a more  generous 
view  is  afforded  if  the  windows  of  one 
side  of  the  room  at  least  be  grouped. 

With  this  grouping,  the  wall  space  also 
becomes  more  massed  and  affords  a 
better  chance  for  the  distribution  of  fur- 
niture. Of  course  there  are  places  where 
the  ordinary  width  of  a single  window 
can  and  should  be  used.  The  style  of 
the  edifice  and  the  size  of  the  rooms 
should  govern  this  largely,  but  on  general  principles  it  seems  better  that  the 
same  amount  of  lighting  surface  were  better  in  its  concentration  than  distributed 
among  several  small  windows. 


French  window  motive  in  the  influence  of  the  Classic  revival  at 
Flushing,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.  The  stairs  are  of  later  date 


102 


The  Country  House 


It  may  often  be  found  of  advantage  to  use  a short,  high  window,  as  over  the 


piano  or  sideboard,  but  it  should  never 


be  used  above  the  dresser  nor  above  the 
sofa  or  couch  unless  they  be  of  a char- 
acter which  avoids  the  possibility  of 
draught.  The  dresser  should  receive 
light  from  the  side  or  rear.  Even  in 
the  case  of  the  sideboard  or  piano,  it  is 
better  that  the  light  should  be  toned 
down,  so  that  it  shall  not  shine  too 


Modern  Colonial  bays  on  Beacon  Street,  Boston,  Mass.  The 
estimated  cost  of  the  bays,  constructed  of  best  pine  stock,  are : 
Large  bay  $285;  small  bays,  each,  $50 


strongly  into  the  eyes.  The  piano  should 
always  receive  a stronger  light  from  the 
side  or  rear.  Stained  glass  or  hangings 
can  well  be  used  to  reduce  the  light. 

The  size  of  the  window  varies 
according  to  its  location  and  require- 
ments. The  ordinary  width  is  about 
3 feet;  in  extreme  cases  only  should  it 
he  less  than  2 feet.  The  absolute  dimen- 
sions are  governed  by  the  glass,  which 
comes  in  sizes  of  6,  8,  io  inches,  and  so 
up.  It  is  better  to  keep  the  width  of 
a single  window  within  5 feet;  and 
especially  where  the  sash  is  of  the 
common  sliding  sort  should  the  relation 
of  the  width  to  the  height  of  the  sash 
he  carefully  considered.  If  the  sash  is 
too  wide  in  propor- 
tion it  is  apt  to  jam 
in  raising  or  lower- 
ing; it  is  also  heavy 
and  hard  to  lift. 
Where  a number 
of  windows  are 
grouped  together  in 
the  mullioned  form, 
as  in  the  Eliza- 
bethan style,  it  is 
better  that  they 
should  be  narrower 
and  more  numer- 
ous, for  the  above 
reason.  Sometimes 
the  window  motive 
consists  of  three 
windows  together, 
the  wider  in  the 


House  at  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass.,  showing  several  different  window  motives  well  adapted  to 
the  style  of  the  structure  they  embellish 


Windows  and  Window  Motives 


103 


centre  with  the  narrower  ones  flanking  it.  In  this  case,  provided  that  enough 
air  can  be  gotten  from  the  two  side  ones,  the  centre  one  can  have  a fixed  sash, 
and  consequently  be  wider  than  if  it  were  to  be  opened.  If  the  air  is  not  sufficient 
from  the  two  sides,  the  whole  or  part  of  the  centre  opening  can  be  made  a 
“French”  window. 

As  regards  the  height  of  the  window  stool  from  the  floor,  there  are  several 
conditions  which  would  govern  this.  The  ordinary  first-story  window  is  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  2 feet  from  the  floor;  the  second-story  should  be  higher. 
In  a case  where  the  windows  are  in 
danger  of  affording  the  passerby  oppor- 
tunity to  look  through,  they  should  be 
about  3 feet  from  the  floor;  a fixed 
window  seat  or  settle  would  be  well  in 
connection  with  them.  Kitchen  and 
bathroom  windows  should  naturally  be 
fairly  high.  A little  care  and  thought 
in  this  direction  is  a good  thing  all 
round,  as  it  adds  to  your  own  personal 
comfort  and  privacy,  while  on  the 
other  hand  the  neighbours  will  not 
know  as  much.  It  is  no  one’s  business 
but  your  own  whether  you  wear  red, 
green  or  yellow  stockings,  or  go  barefoot; 
whether  you  sit  cross-legged  or  hang 
your  feet  on  the  mantel  top.  There  may 
be  extravagances,  but  one  is  responsible 
only  to  oneself.  Look  to  it,  then,  that 
your  windows  are  high  enough  from  the 
floor  for  your  ample  protection. 

In  northern  latitudes  the  window 
should  be  carried  well  to  the  ceiling,  as 
against  the  lower  window  of  the  tropics. 

In  the  high-studded  room  the  transom 
can  be  used  to  advantage;  it  should  be 
employed  wherever  possible,  as  it  venti- 
lates the  room  where  ventilation  is  most  needed.  There  should  be,  however,  a 
studied  relation  between  the  window  and  door  trims,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
general  ensemble  of  the  interior.  Corresponding  horizontal  lines  are  to  be  striven 
for  in  all  such  problems.  For  instance,  the  height  of  the  door,  if  not  carried  to 
the  cornice,  might  be  on  a line  with  the  top  of  the  window  proper,  the  transom 
of  which  extends  to  the  cornice;  again,  the  door,  if  there  be  no  window  transom, 
might  have  a surmounting  frieze  and  a crown  mould,  which  should  be  the  same 
as  the  mould  on  the  window  top  and  at  the  same  height.  There  are  several  ways 
to  preserve  these  lines;  the  main  thing  is  to  see  that  they  exist. 

In  the  early  glass  division  of  windows  the  panes  were  small.  The  medium- 
sized panes  have  their  advantage,  as  they  are  readily  replaced  when  broken,  even 


An  example  of  the  English  casement  window  as  applied  to 
the  bay.  This  very  simple  type  has  the  English  diamond 
panes,  and  is  inexpensive,  being  in  a stucco  wall 


104 


The  Country  House 


in  the  rural  districts.  Another  consideration  in  the  glass  division  of  the  window, 
and  one  of  great  importance,  is  to  arrange  the  horizontal  divisions  in  such  a 
manner  that  sitting  or  standing  near  the  opening  the  vision  is  not  obstructed 

by  them.  4 his  may 
require  some  en- 
gineering on  the 
part  of  the  designer, 
but  it  is  well  worth 
the  while.  The 
principal  difficulty 
comes  fro  m the 
difference  i n the 
height  of  different 
people.  4 he  very 
small  panes  of  the 
early  colonies  are 
rather  inconvenient 
in  this;  besides,  they 
are  hard  to  clean. 
1 he  medium-sized 
glass  is  better,  and 
if  the  lower  sash  is 
not  divided  at  all 
in  its  height,  the 
problem  is  simple. 
It  is  always  annoy- 
ing when  standing 
at  a window  to  be 
obliged  to  dance  up 
and  down  in  order 
to  see  out  of  it. 

I o some  tastes 
the  large  plate  glass 
seems  to  be  the  only 
desirable  thing.  To 
be  sure,  one  gets 
an  unobstructed 
view,  but  replacing 
especially  if  one’s  workman  and 
Then,  too,  some  may  object  that 
out  of  doors.  Surely  the  lines  of 
by  it,  whereas  the  smaller  panes 
the  outside  view  the  effect  of  a 
all  the  effect  of  the  outside  from  the  more 
interior,  there  is  less  incentive  to  stir  out  of 


Emrance  motive  to  house  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  The  recessed  windows  above  give  added 
space  to  the  balcony.  The  side  lights  below  are  rich  and  simple 


it  is  expensive  and  often  inconvenient, 
material  have  to  come  from  a distance, 
a large  plate  lets  in  too  much  of  the 


the  room  are 
tend  to  their 

decoration.  Further,  if  we 
or  less  close  confines  of  the 


in  a measure  destroyed 
preservation  and  to  give 
get 


doors.  As  anything  which  tends  to  destroy  the  harmony  of  the  general 


Windows  and  Window  Motives  105 


design  is  to  be  carefully  avoided,  it  is  well  to  give  the  question  of  large  and 
small  panes  some  careful  consideration. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  windows  in  common  use  in  this  country.  In  the 
ordinary  two  - sash 


window  the  sash 
are  hung  by  a cord 
or  chain  playing 
over  a pulley  in  the 
top  of  the  pulley 
stile,  and  balanced 
by  weights  hidden 
in  boxes  on  either 
side.  The  French, 
or  casement,  win- 
dow is  hung  on 
hinges  and  swings 
into  the  room.  It 
is  often  made  in 
two  vertical  halves, 
which  operate  as 
does  a double  door. 
It  frequently  ex- 
tends to  the  floor, 
and  hence  is  used 
as  a means  of  access 
to  balconies  or  piaz- 
zas. The  English 
casement  window  is 
very  similar  to  the 
French,  only  that  it 
does  not  extend  to 
the  floor  and  gen- 
erally swings  out. 
For  common  use 
the  first  is  to  be 
preferred,  although 
but  half  the  glass 
area  is  available  for 
ventilation.  With 
the  addition  of  the 


Entrance  motive  to  bouse  at  Lynn,  Mass.  The  Palladian  window  surmounting  the  porch 
is  evidently  part  of  the  lighting  agency  of  the  upper  hall.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  various 
parts  are:  Porch  $390,  Palladian  window  $120,  door  motive  $150 


transom,  however,  the  ventilating  area  should  be  sufficient, 
even  in  our  Northern  climate,  where  highly  heated  houses  require  a considerable 
change  of  air.  This  form  of  window  is  as  tight  as  a window  can  be.  With  us 
the  French  window  is  mostly  used  in  its  capacity  of  door.  If  used  in  an  exposed 
position  it  should  be  very  carefully  adjusted,  as  it  is  more  liable  to  leak  than  either 
of  the  other  two.  It  should  be  panelled  at  the  bottom  to  the  height  of  the  other 
window  stools;  first,  to  preserve  the  lines,  and  second,  to  avoid  damage  by 


106  The  Country  House 

children.  In  the  matter  of  ventilation  this  window  will  do  all  that  is  possible, 
and  its  inward  swing  allows  of  the  adjustment  of  storm  sash.  The  English 
casement  window  is  generally  used  in  the  upper  story  or  gable  end,  where  the 
space  is  small  and  the  inside  swing  would  be  in  the  way;  also  where  small 
mullions  are  desired  in  place  of  the  more  or  less  bulky  weight  boxes  of  the 
sliding  sash.  Owing  to  its  opening  to  its  full  area,  it  makes  a good  window  for 
the  attic,  where  the  heated  roof  requires  the  full  measuie  of  air.  It  should  not 
be  used,  however,  where  storm  windows  are  desired,  as  their  outward  swing  makes 

the  adjustment  of  the  latter  impossible. 
It  is  somewhat  tighter  than  the  French, 
but  does  not  exclude  the  weather  as 
does  the  sliding  sash. 

The  forms  of  windows  are  nu- 
merous. Those  in  common  use  are 
the  single  square-headed  window,  the 
round-headed  window,  the  mullioned 
window  and  the  Palladian  motive. 
The  first  two  need  no  further  descrip- 
tion. The  mullioned  window  is  a 
motive  in  which  two  or  more  separate 
windows  are  placed  side  by  side, 
usually  as  close  as  their  construction 
will  permit.  The  Palladian  motive 
was  original  with  the  Italian,  Andrea 
Palladio,  who  was  born  about  1518. 
The  English  copied  it  extensively,  and 
it  became  common  with  us  in  the 
Colonial.  It  consists  of  a mullioned 
window  of  three  divisions,  the  central 
and  larger  of  which  had  originally  a 
round  head.  The  two  flanking  windows 
were  smaller  and  terminated  in  a 
square  head  at  the  spring  of  the  central 
arch.  Both  the  mullioned  window  and 
the  Palladian  motive  are  used  in 
important  locations.  The  staircase 
window  takes  on  many  forms,  and  has  been  the  object  of  much  invention. 

The  bay  window  is  a projecting  window  motive  too  common  and  too  varied 
in  form  to  call  for  much  description.  Briefly,  it  is  a several-sided  and  mod- 
erately sized  break  in  the  straight  wall,  usually  well  filled  with  glass,  and 
affording  a view  to  the  right  and  left  as  well  as  to  the  front.  It  may  extend  to 
the  ground,  in  the  case  of  the  first  story,  and  have  a foundation  of  its  own,  or 
it  may  overhang  at  the  floor,  window  seat  or  sill  level,  and  be  supported  by 
brackets  or  otherwise.  It  is  a convenient  and  admirable  feature  in  the  country 
house  and  worthy  of  consideration,  which  it  has  not  always  received. 

With  the  bay,  the  window  seat  naturally  suggests  itself.  This  is  better  built 


Mullioned  window  in  old  house  at  Flushing,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 
The  blinds  should  have  been  hung  in  two  pairs  so  as  to  obtain  the 
full  light  area 


Windows  and  Window  Motives 


107 


News- 

maga- 


Interior  of  window  shown  on  opposite  page.  A good  example  of  the  use  of  corner  block 

and  head  panel 


into  the  window  motive,  and  thus  made  a fixed  part  of  it,  although  in  a square 
bay  a settle  or  couch  can  be  used  to  advantage.  As  we  all  know,  the  accumulation 
of  odds  and  ends,  which  it  is  often  desirable  to  keep,  makes  it  necessary  to  provide 
some  place  for  their 
storage, 
papers  and 
zines,  remnants  of 
toys,  odds  and  ends 
of  various  kinds, 
are  very  apt  to  find 
no  really  safe  hid- 
ing place  when 
gathered  up  in  a 
hurry.  You  may 
lay  down  rules  for- 
bidding theirwhole- 
sale  distribution 
from  cellar  to 
garret,  but  prohibi- 
tion will  hardly 
prohibit.  With  this 
in  view  it  is  well  to 
provide  the  window  seat  with  a 
space  can  be  utilised. 

The  hanging  of  window  curtains  and  shades  is  more  often  badly  done  than 
well  done.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  lack  of  calculation  in  the  designing  of  the 
window  motive  and  the  hanging  itself.  As  blinds,  screens,  storm  sashes  and 
solid  shutters  enter  more  or  less  into  the  calculation,  let  us  consider  the  whole 
window  with  all  its  embellishments.  In  the  first  place,  owing  to  the  lowness 
of  the  sun  in  northern  latitudes,  the 
curtain  seems  to  be  an  essential,  but  it 
should  never  he  allowed  to  destroy  the 
effect  of  the  window  casing,  as  it  usually 
does,  kn  the  better  houses  of  the 
Renaissance,  the  window  curtains  were 
straight  pieces  of  fabric,  hung  across 
the  window  opening;  they  were  often 
omitted  entirely.  They  should  never  be 
too  heavy.  In  fact,  if  they  are  thin 
enough  to  admit  of  seeing  the  archi- 
tecture through  them,  it  is  better. 

Fig.  15  shows  one  method  of  building 
an  architrave,  when  the  curtain  is  to  be 
considered  as  a permanent  hanging. 

The  reveal  (a)  allows  for  the  setting  in 
of  the  curtain  rod  (b)  and  the  shade 


hinged 


cover,  so  that  the  otherwise  wasted 


Fig.  15. 


^Enlarged  Sctfitn. 
ef  If'mJow-At+lL . 


One  method  of  building  the  casing  when  the  hangings 
are  to  be  considered  as  permanent 
a.  Reveal  b.  Curtain  rod  c.  Shade  roller 


io8 


The  Country  House 


fixtures  (c)  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  window  outline,  and  at  the  same  time  cover 
the  glass  opening  fully.  A small  curtain  pole  is  preferable  to  a large  one 
wherever  it  will  hold  the  weight  required  of  it.  If  it  is  so  that  the  reveal  forces 

the  back  band  too  far  into  the  room,  the 
moulding  (d)  can  be  used.  Although 
the  reveal  can  be  used  with  any  window, 
the  cut  illustrates  its  adaptation  to  the 
French  style,  with  the  idea  of  showing 
how  the  curtains  can  be  managed 
easily,  so  as  to  interfere  with  the 
window  swing.  A cord,  the  middle  of 
which  is  fastened  to  the  inner  ring  at  f, 
and  running  through  the  other  rings 
(except  the  last  ones),  is  carried  through 
double  pulleys  back  of  the  curtain  at 
the  angles  (e-e).  The  ends,  terminating 
in  tassels,  are  allowed  to  hang  with  the 
curtain.  The  other  half  of  the  hanging 
is  treated  in  like  manner,  and  it  is 
readily  seen  that  the  pulling  of  one  pair 
of  ends  will  open  and  the  other  close 
the  curtain.  The  fact  that  the  hangings 
are  frequently  draped  back  at  the 
bottom  does  not  interfere  with  the 
working  of  this  scheme.  The  shade 
should  always  be  hung  on  the  out- 
side of  the  window  opening  and  never 
it,  as  it  is  liable  to  admit  stray 


Old  church  window  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  A good  motive  for  the 
simple  and  effective  handling  of  the  staircase  window 


shafts  of  light  at  the  sides,  which  are  extremely  annoying  at  times. 

Fig.  16  shows  an  arrangement  of  a three-opening  mullioned  window  in  a 
brick  wall,  in  which  the  central  one  is  a French  window  opening  on  a piazza 
and  the  side  openings  are  of  the  sliding  sash  type.  With  this  as  a basis,  let  us 
continue  with  the  window  embellishment.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  curtains 
can  be  hung  on  the  inside  of  the  recess,  and  shades  be  placed  near  the  sash 
and  managed  in  the  manner  already  shown.  Owing  to  the  awkward  swing  of 

the  French  window 
into  the  room,  which 
is  more  or  less  ob- 
jectionable when 
treated  singly,  the 
side  window  seats 
with  large  ends 
naturally  suggest 
themselves.  This 

Fig.  16.  Plan  of  a three-opening  mullioned  window  in  a brick  or  stone  wall  in  which  the  does  tWO  thinVS it 

central  opening  is  a French  window  r 1 

"French"  window  sash  b.  Inside  blinds  c.  Outside  screens  d.  Outside  reveal  c.  Sliding  sash  f.  Seat  ends  1 11 K.  C S Cate  Ot  tne 


Windows  and  Window  Motives 


109 


open  window  (a),  and  makes  an  added  feature  of  the  seat.  A door  stop  properly 
placed  will  prevent  the  window  from  marring  the  seat  end.  As  blinds  on  the 
outside  of  a house  are  always  awkward  things  to  get  at,  and  as  the  chances  for 


inside  ones  in  this  case  are  excellent, 
they  have  been  adopted  (see  b-b-b). 
They  should  be,  if  painted,  of  if-inch 
clear  pine  stock,  fitted  with  movable 
slats  in  the  lower  half  and  hung  on 
wrought-iron  or  brass  angle  butts.  The 
man  who  invented  the  adjustable  win- 
dow screen  meant  well,  but  he  fell  flat 
at  the  start.  What  we  buy  at  the 
department  store  for  nineteen  and  one- 
half  cents  each  is  a very  good  article 
— that  is,  to  keep  the  flies  in;  it  surely 
does  not  keep  them  out.  The  more 
expensive  kinds  are  no  better;  they 
make  you  think  so  because  of  their 
price.  When  they  are  in  the  window 
they  leave  an  opening  between  the  sash, 
through  which  flies  and  mosquitos 
swarm  in  delight.  The  more  simple 
form  of  half  screen,  which  slides  from 
top  to  bottom  of  the  window  opening, 
is  better.  Unless  the  sash  are  thrown 
wide  open,  however,  it  leaves  that 
same  little  space  between  the  sash  as 
an  invitation  to  the  undesirable,  and 
not  infrequently  we  wish  the  window 
only  open  in  part.  The  best  form  of 
screen  is  the  full-sized  one  hung;  on 
hinges  on  the  outside  of  the  window 
casing  (see  c-c-c).  Its  being  hung  allows 
the  washing  of  the  window,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  its  covering  of  the  whole 
opening  permits  the  window  to  be 
opened  in  any  manner  desired.  As 
is  frequently  the  case  during  stormy 
weather,  it  is  desirable  to  open  the 
sliding-sash  window  at  the  top  for 
ventilation.  If  the  outside  reveal  (d-d) 
is  not  deep  enough  to  protect  the 
window  head,  as  in  a wooden  wall, 
the  screen  should  be  built  with  about 
four  fixed  blind  slats  at  the  top.  This 
will  keep  out  the  weather,  will  not  inter- 


r 


Portion  of  house  at  Wayne,  Pa.,  showing  treatment  of  Elizabethan 
bay.  Wm.  L.  Price,  architect 


A semicircular  bay,  lighting  a high-storied  room 


no  The  Country  House 

fere  with  the  ventilation,  and  as  there  is  plenty  of  light  in  the  summer  it  will 
not  cut  ofl  enough  of  this  to  count.  Of  course  in  the  case  of  outside 
blinds  this  is  unnecessary.  Copper  wire  makes  the  best  screen  covering, 

although  the  most 
expensive;  common 
wire  rusts  in  spite 
of  paint  and  soon 
goes  to  pieces.  If 
copper  wire  be 
beyond  the  reach 
of  your  purse,  gal- 
vanised wire  is  the 
next  best  thing. 
W here  the  outside 
blind  is  desired,  it  is 
better  to  em 
some  form 
“opener”  which 
manipulates  it  from 
the  inside.  In  this 
case  the  blind  can  be 
arranged  to  work 
outside  of  the  outer 
screen.  Great  care 
should  be  used  in 
the  arrangement  of 
the  outside  blind,  to 
see  that  it  always 
lies  flat  to  the  wall 
when  thrown  open 
and  does  not  come 
across  other  open- 
ings. In  the  shingle- 
window  motives  the 


dow  is  apt  to  give 
considerable  trouble 
in  this  direction,  and 
bay  windows  are 

simply  out  of  the  question  as  a general  rule.  A good  form  of  inside 
blind  is  the  “ Venetian.”  In  this  the  slats  are  affixed  to  wide  tapes, 
and  the  blind  is  capable  of  being  condensed  into  a space  equal  (theoreti- 
cally) to  the  thickness  of  the  slats.  Where  they  are  used  an  ample  pocket 
should  be  provided  for  at  the  top  of  the  window  motive.  If  this  is  not 


problem  is  some- 
what simplified,  but 
the  mullioned  win- 


ploy 
o f 


Excellent  glass  motives,  both  in  the  treatment  of  the  doorway  and  the  high  bay.  The  latter 
might  well  be  adapted  to  the  staircase  motive 


Windows  and  Window  Motives  hi 

done  they  will  have  to  be  hung  in  the  regular  pockets,  which  are  awkward  in 
the  extreme. 

A wicket  or  swinging  sash  should  be  provided  for  ventilation  in  all  storm 
windows.  This  usually  occupies  the 
space  of  one  pane  of  glass  and  should 
swing  inward. 

All  storm  sash,  storm  doors  and 
screens  should  have  a number  to  corre- 
spond with  one  on  the  casings  of  the 
several  windows.  These  are  best  cut 
in  with  a knife,  using  the  Roman  nu- 
merals for  simplicity  in  cutting.  As 
these  various  accessories  are  fitted  to 
the  individual  openings,  it  saves  much 
time  and  bother,  occasioned  by  getting 
the  wrong  thing  in  the  wrong  place. 

Solid  batten  storm  shutters  can  be  affixed 
in  the  same  manner  and  from  the  same 
screw  eyes  as  the  storm  windows  (see 
“Practical  Hints”).  Phis  shutter  is  an 
essential  where  the  house  is  to  be  closed 
for  a part  of  the  year.  The  storm 
shutter  should  always  have  a small 
perforation  in  its  upper  half  so  as  to 
shed  a ray  of  light  into  the  room.  This 
is  necessary  in  the  opening  and  shutting 
of  the  house,  otherwise  it  would  be  left 
in  absolute  darkness,  and  furniture  and 
pet  corns  are  liable  to  suffer  in  con- 
sequence. The  shutters  of  our  forefathers  were  frequently  pierced  with  a small 
star  or  crescent,  which  was  evidently  an  after  consideration,  judging  from  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  done.  These  forms  are  good,  but,  whichever  is  used, 
it  should  not  exceed  4 inches  in  diameter.  It  is  better  if  the  piercing  be  glazed; 
the  Colonial  bull's-eye  light  is  not  bad  for  this  pirpose. 

A good  form  of  storm  shutter  for  the  summer  home  of  those  who  can  afford 
it  is  one  made  on  the  lines  of  the  old,  simple-panelled  Colonial  shutter  (see 
the  Bowne  House  at  flushing).  1 his  old  form  should  be  reinforced  with  matched 
sheathing,  between  which  is  sandwiched  a piece  of  sheet  iron,  firmly  bolted 
through  the  stiles  and  rails.  The  bolts  should  be  placed  with  the  heads  on 
the  sheatliing  side  and  the  reverse  end  welded  down  after  the  nuts  have  been  set 
tightly  in  place.  I hese  shutters  should  be  hung  permanently  on  heavy  wrought- 
iron  strap  hinges,  so  that  when  open  the  panelled  face  is  outermost.  The 
effect  thus  obtained  is  not  at  all  unpleasing.  If  hung  in  pairs,  strong  bolts  can 
be  used  to  secure  them.  In  some  of  the  later  work  a shutter  is  used  in  which 
the  upper  half  is  a blind  with  fixed  louvers,  and  the  lower  half  is  panelled. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  any  shutter,  no  matter  how  strong,  is  not  im- 


Window  invold  Bowne  House,  Flushing,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 
The  solid  shutter,  common  during  the  Colonial  period,  was  fre- 
quently pierced  through  the  upper  panel  by  a crescent  or  star 
form  for  the  admission  of  a faint  light 


112 


The  Country  House 


A second-story  bay  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  with  effective  glass  divisions.  The  oval  Colonial 
window  makes  an  excellent  closet  light 


pregnable.  To  he  who  premeditates  burglary  its  removal  is  like  the  cracking 
of  a nut — an  extreme  pleasure  in  anticipation  of  the  meat  within.  Its  only 

purpose  is  to  dis- 
courage the  atten- 
tions of  honest  folk 
and  small  boys. 
Screens  may  answer 
for  flies  and  the 
like,  but  the  suc- 
cessful barring  of 
one’s  own  kind  is  an 
Utopian  dream  too 
good  to  be  realised. 

Windows,  a 1 - 
though  differing 
slightly  in  the  minor 
details  of  construc- 
tion, are  in  the  main 
alike.  Frames  of 
those  set  in  wood, 
brick  and  stone 

walls,  and  in  the  cellar  window,  differ  considerably  in  the  manner  of  adjustment. 

I he  ordinary  window  in  the  wooden  wall  is  shown  in  Fig.  17.  We  will  refer 
to  this  in  its  description. 

With  the  exception  of  pulley  stiles,  stop  beads  and  often  the  yoke,  which  are 

of  hard  pine,  the  sash,  outside  casings, 
sill,  and  the  inside  casings  (where  paint 
is  used),  are  of  white  pine.  The  usual 
dimensions  of  stock  are  as  follows: 

Sash  to  carry  double  thick  German 
glass,  G inches;  sash  to  carry  plate 
glass,  2 inches;  sills,  2 inches;  casings, 
| inch;  stop  beads,  \ inch;  pulley  stiles, 
f-  to  G inches;  yokes,  ij  to  2 inches; 
stools,  1 to  if  inches. 

The  sill  should  have  a i-Uinch 
pitch  so  that  water  will  be  readily  shed. 
The  bottom  of  the  outside  casing  where 
it  intersects  the  sill  (u)  should  be  cut 
out  to  allow  water  to  drain  from  sash 
groove.  Flashing  (n)  should  be  of  16- 
ounce  copper  or  lead  extending  3 inches 
under  the  outside  wall  covering.  Never 
use  tin.  The  spaces  above  the  yoke  and 
under  the  sill  should  be  caulked  with 
plaster. 


A bay  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  used  in  connection  with  the 
gambrel  roof.  The  stone  underpinning  extends  to  the  window 
sills  and  gives  a generous  stool  on  the  inside 


Windows  and  Window  Motives 


ii3 


Plan 


Fig.  17.  Sections  of  a simple  window 
frame  in  a wooden  wall 

a.  Top  rail  (upper  sash)  m.  Clapboards 

b.  Meeting  rail 

c.  Muntin 

d.  Bottom  rail  (lower 
sash) 


e.  Sash  style 

f.  Pulley  style 

g.  Outside  casing 

h.  Inside  casing 

i.  Ground  casing 

j.  Stop  bead 

k.  Outside  boarding 

l.  Parting  bead 


Flashing 

o.  Stool 

p.  Apron 

q.  Lathes 

r.  Plaster 

s.  Ground 

t.  Weight  box 

u.  Drain  for  sash 

groove 

w.  Weight 

x.  Sash  lift 


The  sash  are  usually  hung  on  sash  cords,  the  better  sort  being  braided  or 
woven.  Metal  chains,  though  they  cost  more,  will  last  longer  and  are  to  be 
preferred.  The  common  window  weight,  which  is  enclosed  in  the  box  behind  the 
pulley  stiles,  is  of  iron.  For  heavy  windows  lead  weights  are  better,  as  iron, 
at  the  weight  required,  becomes  too  bulky.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  weights  properly  balance  the  sash,  otherwise  there  is  sure  to  be  trouble  with 
the  windows  not  staying  in  place.  Axle  pulleys  over  which  the  window  cord  or 
chnia  plays  should  be  of  the  best  pattern  and  have  ordinarily  about  2}-inch  wheels. 

The  window  pocket  is  cut  in  the  lower  half  of  the  pulley  stile  and  in  the 
groove  of  the  lower  sash.  It 
is  used  in  the  hanging  of 
weights  and  also  to  repair 
broken  sash  cords  and  for  like 
troubles.  As  the  stop  bead 
has  to  be  removed  in  order  to 
get  at  the  pocket,  it  should 
always  be  screwed  in  place. 

Always  fasten  a stop  bead  with 
round-headed  screws. 

Much  trouble  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  binding  of  win- 
dow sash  in  damp  weather. 

This  in  a measure  is  unavoid- 
able, owing  to  the  excessive 
swelling  of  the  white  pine.  To 
avoid  the  excess  of  it  the  sash 
should  not  be  fitted  too  snugly; 

a little  play  is  necessary.  As  the  dry  weather  will 
shrink  the  sash  and  perhaps  allow  it  to  rattle,  it  would 
be  well  to  use  a narrow  rubber-edged  weather  strip 
on  the  vertical  stop  beads,  to  control  the  lower  sash 
and  correspondingly  to  control  the  upper  sash  on  the 
inner  edge  of  the  outside  casing.  It  is  well  to  bevel 
slightly  the  edge  of  the  top  rail  of  the  upper  sash  (a) 
and  the  stop  bead  which  engages  it,  so  that  when  the 


window  is  closed  it  will  be  held  firm.  The  bottom 
rail  of  the  lower  sash  (d)  is  held  in  like  manner,  and  a sash-fast  is  used  which 
will  draw  the  meeting  rails  together.  Thus  there  should  be  little  trouble  with 
the  rattling  or  leaky  window,  even  when  the  sash  have  ample  play  in  the  grooves. 

A very  necessary  adjunct  to  the  above  fittings,  and  one  which  adds  much 
to  the  ease  of  manipulating  the  window,  is  the  sash  lift.  Two  should  always  be 
provided  for  on  the  bottom  rail  of  the  lower  sash;  they  are  preferably  of  the 
projecting  sort.  It  is  well  also  to  have  two  mortised  lifts  set  in  the  top  rail  of  the 
upper  sash,  as  there  is  little  or  nothing  to  get  hold  of  in  case  it  should  bind. 
With  lifts  thus  adjusted,  one  has  less  fear  of  breaking  glass,  and  possibly  receiving 
an  ugly  cut. 


ii4  The  Country  House 

As  a matter  of  utility,  the  stained  sash  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  painted  one, 
as  paint  is  very  apt  to  stick,  damp  weather  tending  to  soften  it. 

The  construction  of  the  window  as  set  in  the  brick  wall  is  shown  in  Fig.  18. 
The  principal  thing  is  to  see  that  the  joints  between  the  brickwork  and  woodwork 
are  made  weather  tight.  Thus  the  intervals  are  filled  in  with  plaster  or  cement  as 
shown,  and  the  staff  bead  (k)  is  adjusted  after  the  window  has  been  built  in.  It 
is  well  to  bed  the  staff  bead  in  elastic  cement,  a mixture  which  partakes  of  certain 


Fig.  18.  Sections  of  a window  in  a brick  wall 


Fig.  19.  Showing  the  construction  of  a “ French  ” window 


a.  Top  rail 

b.  Bottom  rail 

c.  Style 

d.  Pulley  style 


e.  Stop  bead 

f.  Finish 

g.  Casing 
li.  Furring 


k.  Staff  bead 
n.  Ground 
p.  Plaster 
w.  Weight 


a.  Wood  panel  f.  Weather  moulding  n.  Ground 

1>.  Putty  g.  Canal  o.  Inside  casing 

c.  Stcp’moulding  h.  Drain  to  canal  p.  Plaster 

d.  Knob  k.  Hinge  r.  Putty  bed  for  glass 

e.  Rubber  weather  slop  m.  Drip  s.  Upper  floor 

A.  Section  of  style  showing  the  natural 
bend  of  rubber  when  not  engaged  with  f. 


properties  of  putty  and  glue.  As  it  can  be  said  practically  never  to  dry,  it  thus, 
with  its  elastic  properties,  makes  an  excellent  joint  for  any  similar  case. 

Where  the  window  is  set  in  a stone  wall,  especially  if  the  stone  be  rough  field 
stone,  the  care  in  caulking  joints  becomes  yet  more  important.  Some  claim  that 
the  frame  should  be  set  after  the  window  opening  is  constructed.  As  this  receives 
the  support  of  some  of  the  best  authorities,  it  is  worthy  of  consideration.  How- 
ever, if  the  staff  head  be  bedded  in  elastic  cement  as  already  described,  there 
should  be  little  trouble  with  a built-in  window  frame. 


Entrance  motive  to  the  Emerson  house  at  Salem,  Mass.  Remodelled  by  Arthur  Little,  architect.  This  example  shows  some  very 
interesting  handling  of  simple  and  elaborate  window  treatment.  The  true  Colonial  feeling  has  been  retained. 


n6 


The  Country  House 


P/tn 


The  French  window,  from  the  fact  of  its  inward  swing,  requires  extra 
precaution  to  keep  out  the  weather.  Fig.  19  shows  a simple  and  effective 
method  of  construction.  A weather  strip  of  rubber  is  suggested  as  a simple  way  of 
rejecting  moisture  and  air.  It  is  easily  replaced  when  worn  out  (as  all  things  will  be 
sooner  or  later),  and  as  its  natural  form  (as  shown  in  A)  suggests,  it  will  tend  to  over- 
come any  slight  looseness  of  the  engaged  parts.  These 
strips  are  reinforced  by  the  canals  (g),  which  allow  water 
to  discharge  itself  naturally  before  it  can  get  at  the  rubber. 

In  the  case  of  the  canals  in  the  upright  jambs,  a drain  is 
cut  at  its  intersection  with  the  sill,  similar  to  the  cut  made 
in  the  outside  casing  of  the  ordinary  window.  The  plate 
glass  is  best  set  in  a putty  bed  (r)  and  held  in  place  on 
the  inside  by  the  moulding  (c)  with  putty  bed  (b).  Owing 
to  the  swinging  of  the  sash,  putty  alone  is  not  sufficient 
to  withstand  the  jar  thus  occasioned.  The  moulding  or 
stop  (c)  should  he  affixed  with  screws,  in  order  that  its 
removal  in  case  of  broken  glass  may  be  made  easy. 

Fig.  20  shows  the  construction  of  a cellar  window 
in  a stone  wall.  1 he  frame  is  built  into  the  wall  when 
laid,  and  is  of  2-inch  stock.  J he  sash  is  hinged  at  the 
top,  provided  with  a drip  moulding  (d),  and  is  best  glazed 
with  double-thick  German  glass.  It  is  secured  by  a 
button  at  the  bottom,  and  held  open  by  a hook  which 
engages  a screw  eye  affixed  to  the  ceiling.  It  is  alwavs 
better  that  the  hook  he  placed  in  the  sash,  as  it  can  thus 
be  fastened  open  with  one  hand,  and,  further,  it  gives 
something  to  take  hold  of  in  case  the  window  should  stick, 
and  thus  does  away  with  the  special  knob  for  that  purpose.  To  protect  the  staff  bead 
from  the  weather  and  keep  the  water  from  running  in  upon  it  over  the  face  of  the 
horizontal  finish  board,  a drip  (d)  is  provided  in  the  lower  member  of  the  water 
table.  Fly  screens  should  be  placed  on  all  cellar  windows.  I hey  can  be  fastened 
to  the  outside  frame,  and  screwed  on  from  the  outside,  or  a rabbet  can  be  made 
in  the  frame  to  receive  them.  Canals  should  be  cut  in  the  bottom  rail  of  the 
screen  frame,  to  let  off  such  water  as  may  find  its  way  in.  If  an  iron  grating  is 
desired,  it  would  he  better  to  have  it  screwed  on  from  the  inside,  perhaps  inside 
the  screen.  Whatever  way  it  may  be  adjusted,  be  sure  that  it  is  not  made  too 
easy  for  the  man  who  comes  to  “borrow”  the  coal.  A grating  always  looks  ten 
times  more  formidable  when  seen  through  the  uncertain  meshes  of  a fly  screen 
than  it  does  when  exposed  in  open  defiance  with  all  its  frailty. 

The  “transom”  window  is  constructed  somewhat  on  the  lines  of  the  cellar 
window,  being  on  the  same  principle.  It  is  hung  at  the  top  or  bottom,  as  the 
case  may  be,  and  is  manipulated  by  means  of  a transom  rod,  a contrivance  which 
passes  down  the  architrave  to  within  easy  reach.  The  pitch  to  the  sill  of  a 
transom  window  should  he  f airly  quick,  so  that  all  water  will  meet  with  sufficient 
discouragement  at  the  start. 


SUwk  J.// 

Ml 

TlAJ<,r 

1C 

* .J $ 

Fig.  20.  Showing  the  construction 
of  a cellar  window 
a.  Top  rail  b.  Bottom  rail  c.  Style 
d.  Drip  e.  Staff  bead 


In  the  Peabody  Institute  at  Danvers,  Mass.  A good  example  in  marble,  but  the  two  canker  worms 
trying  to  crawl  up  the  sides  detract  somewhat  from  the  dignity  of  the  composition 


CHAPTER  VII 

Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing 

T IS  a far  call  from  the  primitive  open  fire  to  a modern  fireplace. 
1 here  is  but  a slight  difference,  however,  between  the  fireplace 
of  to-day  and  that  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  other  words,  the 
development,  having  reached  at  a certain  point  a high  measure 
of  fitness  to  the  necessities  of  the  situation,  practically  ceased 
thenceforward. 

We  can  still  see,  in  the  huts  or  wigwams  of  the  savage,  the 
raised  hearth  which  primitive  man  built  in  the  centre  of  his  abode.  The  smoke 
from  this  escaped  through  a hole  in  the  roof,  or  even  through  any  adjacent 
door  or  window.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  hearth  w^as  set  against  the  wall  and 
a projecting  hood  of  brick  or  stone  built  above  it  to  carry  off  the  smoke.  This 
was  an  approach  to  a safer  and  more  useful  fireplace,  and  the  hood  was  used  for 
a considerable  period. 

Gradually  the  fireplace  was  built  with  two  flanking  jambs,  which  supported 
the  hood  or  breast,  and  thus  the  main  principles  of  the  present  form  of  fireplace 
were  evolved.  The  hood  was  later  abandoned  and  the  straight  chimney  breast 
adopted.  Notable  examples  of  this  treatment  are  those  of  the  Chateau  Blois.  As 
the  armorial  bearing  was  a prominent  feature  of  decoration  in  those  times, 
their  use  in  the  treatment  of  the  fire  breast  became  common,  and  the  already 
important  fireplace  became  the  central  and  chief  feature  of  the  room.  At  a later 

117 


n8 


The  Country  House 


period  the  fireplace  was  let  into  the  wall,  as  in  the  common  form  to-day.  The 
Italians,  however,  retained  the  hood  for  a considerable  period,  as  a decorative 

feature  too  important  to  be  discarded. 

At  first  the  fireplace  opening  was  of 
small  dimensions,  but  on  the  theory  that 
the  larger  opening  meant  an  increase  of 
heat,  it  was  enlarged  to  great  size.  Then, 
when  the  tendency  to  draw  children  and 
furniture  up  the  chimney  or  let  in  all  the 
outside  cold  through  the  enormous 
opening  found  little  hindrance  in  the 
iron  doors  employed  to  remedy  the 
defect,  a return  to  the  smaller  opening 
was  felt  a relief. 

The  best  forms  of  old  fireplaces 
were  let  into  the  wall,  leaving  no  dis- 
turbing break  projecting  into  the  room. 

I his  was  made  possible  by  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  used  in  those  times. 
To  overcome  this  difficulty,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  wooden  wall,  the  Colo- 
nials (to  take  one  example)  furred  out 
the  flanking  walls  to  the  face  of  the 
chimney  breast  and  employed  the  recessed 
window  seat,  so  as  not  to  waste  room.  As 
the  fireplace  was  usually  in  the  centre  of 
the  wall,  it  gave  a chance  for  the  recessed 
seat  on  either  side — a charming  motive, 
much  and  wisely  used  in  modern  work. 
Of  course,  in  a case  where  the  chimney  is  in  some  inner  wall  the  window  seat 
becomes  impossible.  There  is,  however,  the  buffet  and  the  closet  as  well  as  the 
straight  alcove,  an  excellent  place  for  furniture,  owing  to  its  slight  depth. 

It  is  hardly  worth  while  to  go  into  a detailed  enumeration  of  the  various 
forms  of  the  historic  fireplace.  From  the  early  stone  fireplace  down  to  the  present 
day  many  varying  forms  and  materials  have  been  used.  The  wooden  mantel,  now 
so  common,  had  one  of  its  greatest  sponsors  in  the  English,  who  obtained  very 
elaborate  and  often  pleasing  effects. 

Early  fireplaces  were  lined  with  stone  or  brick.  Later  an  iron  lining  was 
used.  Nowadays  we  find  brick,  tile  and  iron,  but  the  average  iron  lining  is  so 
abominably  bad  in  design  that  its  lack  of  use  reflects  credit  on  the  man  who 
builds  in  any  other  way.  The  old  fire  frame  of  the  later  Colonial  period,  which  sets 
well  into  the  room,  from  the  fact  of  its  large  radiating  surface  is  an  excellent 
heater  as  compared  with  the  ordinary  fireplace.  It  makes  a most  practical 
motive  for  the  chamber,  as  it  is  small  in  scale  and  size,  and  it  is  strange  that  it  is 
not  more  used.  Perhaps,  too,  at  some  not  far-distant  period,  some  one  who  is 
given  to  using  his  own  brain  in  the  solution  of  the  building  problem  may  discover 


Hooded  fireplace  in  studioof  Mr.  Will  H.  Low,  Bronxville, 
N.  Y.  A design  well  adapted  to  the  unconventional  den  or 
billiard  room 


Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing  119 


JP/arz. 


that  the  old  fire  frames  can  be  adapted  in  a most  ingenious  manner  as  a fireplace 
lining.  He  may  discover,  furthermore,  that  if  this  fire  frame  is  used  within  a 
larger  fireplace  it  still  retains  its  radiating  surface  and  at  the  same  time  loses  its 
ordinary  disadvantage  of  intrusion  upon  the  floor  space  (see  Fig.  21).  He  might 
even  fill  up  the  space  about  the  fire  frame  with  perforated  metal  work,  which 
would  give  him  practically  a very  small  local  heater  and  a comparatively  large 
register.  As  most  of  the  generated  heat  from  a fireplace  goes  up  the  chimney 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  this  idea  is  worthy 
of  some  consideration.  If  the  fire  frame  is  not 
obtainable,  the  “Franklin  stove,”  its  descendant, 
will  answer  just  as  well;  be  sure,  however,  that 
you  amputate  the  legs  and  set  the  stove  directly 
on  the  hearth. 

If  the  iron  fire  back  of  decent  design  can 
be  obtained,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  it,  as  it 
withstands  the  heat  and  radiates  better  than  any 
other  material.  Reproductions  of  old  work  are 
apt  to  be  better  in  design  than  the  modern 
product,  but  this  rule  is  not  without  exceptions. 

Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  coal  began  to  be  used,  and  the  English 
wood-burning  fireplaces  of  the  period  were 
modified  for  its  accommodation.  Basket  grates 
set  inside  of  the  moderately  sized  fireplace  seem 
to  have  solved  the  problem  better  than  the  fixed 
grate,  as  its  removal  for  the  burning  of  wood  is 
an  added  advantage.  Many  of  the  old  basket 
grates,  and  a few  of 
the  modern  exam- 
ples, are  excellent 
in  design.  The  prin- 
cipal troublewith  all 
this  ironwork,  both 
the  fire  back  and  the 
grate,  was  the  ten- 
dency to  overcrowd 
it  with  cheap  orna- 
mentation. Restful 
simplicity  wears 
better  and  becomes 
less  tiresome  on  lone 
acquaintance.  I n 
the  modern  country 
home  all  things 
should  work  together 

for  lestfulness.  A delightful  example  of  delicate  detail  in  the  Ladd  House,  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 


Fig.  2 1 . Showing  the  use  of  the  old  fire  frame 
in  the  larger  fireplace  opening.  A pierced  metal 
screen  is  used  as  a facing  about  the  frame 


120 


The  Country  House 

The  wooden  mantel  with  the  wooden  architraves  calls  for  a fireproof  facing 
between  it  and  the  fireplace  opening.  Brick  and  marble  were  used  for  this,  as 
well  as  the  charming  Dutch  tiles  now  so  sought  after.  Some  authorities  lament 
the  use  of  wood  in  the  above  capacity,  arguing  that  it  looks,  and  is,  inflammable. 
This  is  true,  but  nevertheless  the  better  work  of  the  designers  in  wood  does  not 
seem  to  alarm  the  most  of  us,  and  as  a matter  of  fact  there  is  more  cause  for 
worry  in  the  poorly  constructed  chimney  and  its  relation  to  the  concealed  wood- 
work, which  cannot 
be  gotten  at  in  case 
of  trouble.  Then, 
too,  the  wood  must 
begin  somewhere, 
and  the  stone  mantel 
is  hardly  in  place  in 
a room  when  it  is 
the  only  material  of 
its  kind  used.  Those 
who  have  considered 
the  problem  with 
any  degree  of  under- 
standing have  done 
their  work  well,  and 
it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  there  are 
people  of  consider- 
able taste  and  small 
purses  who  cannot 
afford  the  marble 

or  even  the  tile  fire  breast,  even  were  it  in  good  taste.  Brick  is  cheap,  but  not 
always  in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  room.  These  same  authorities  insist  that 
the  architrave  of  the  fireplace  should  extend  to  the  opening,  like  that  of  the  door 
or  window.  Now  it  does  not  require  a very  lengthy  argument  to  demonstrate  to  the 
ordinary  individual  that  the  fireplace  is  neither  a door  nor  a window,  or  that  the 
principles  governing  the  latter  cannot  control  the  more  stringent  ones  of  the 
former.  It  is  the  province  of  architecture  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  principles 
of  construction  and  utility,  and  not  the  reverse.  The  architecture  that  has  made 
itself  subservient  to,  and  at  the  same  time  harmonious  with,  these  principles,  is 
the  better  architecture.  True  design  is  not  constructed  decoration  but  decorated 
construction.  It  is  not  denied  that  the  fireplace  architrave  may  abut  the  opening, 
if  the  thing  be  feasible,  but  it  is  denied  that  its  separation  from  it  by  the  usual 
facing,  in  the  case  of  wooden  trim,  is  not  just  as  good  and  pure  design.  A facing 
of  from  8 to  12  inches  is  safe  enough,  but  it  should  not  be  less  than  this. 

With  the  craze  for  bric-a-brac  the  mantel  shelf  became  a thing  of  much  im- 
portance and  was  much  enlarged.  From  the  simple  and  pleasing  design  the 
wooden  stock  mantel  has  departed,  and  has  given  us  a hideous  grotesque  of  in- 
numerable shelves,  spindles  and  jig-saw  work,  fit  to  raise  the  old  designers  from 


Mantel  in  the  Nichols  House,  Salem,  Mass.  A successful  rendering  in  which  the  flanking  beams 
retain  the  squareness  of  the  ceiling  and  serve  to  tie  the  motive  to  the  rest  of  the  room 


Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing  121 


their  graves.  Bric- 
a-brac  is  best  used 
sparingly;  a mantel 
should  not  be  clut- 
tered with  it.  The 
clock,  a couple  of 
vases,  and  perhaps 
a pair  of  candle- 
sticks, should 
answer  the  purpose. 

There  may  be  cases 
where  more  is  de- 
sirable, but  each  ad- 
dition to  the  above 
tends  to  more;  big 
museums  are 
stocked  in  just  this 
manner. 

The  common 
forms  of  adorning 
the  over-mantel  are 
by  the  use  of  the 
mirror  or  the  paint- 
ing. These  are  best 
confined  within  cer- 
tain lines,  which  are 
naturally  a part  of 
the  design.  In  the 
case  of  the  mirror  it 
is  better  that  the 
clock  should  not 
cut  across  it  awk- 
wardly; the  clock 
back  is  not  apt  to 
give  a beautiful  re- 
flection, as  is  the 
case  with  the  vase. 

Anything  which  is 

not  intended  to  be  inspected  from  all  sides  should  be  thus  considered.  In  the 
case  of  the  painting,  nothing  should  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  its  outline,  and  for 
this  reason  it  should  be  placed  high  enough  above  the  mantel  shelf  to  avoid  such 
possibility. 

Draperies  and  textiles  of  all  sorts  should  be  kept  away  from  the  fire  breast; 
their  inflammability  makes  them  dangerous,  and  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  others, 
they  look  out  of  place. 

On  general  principles,  the  country  house  requires  a less  elaborate  fireplace  than 


A modern  hooded  Gothic  example  at  Fairhaven,  Mass.  Charles  Brigham,  architect 


122 


The  Country  House 

the  city  house.  It  should  harmonise  with  the  room,  and  its  lines  should  be  in 
keeping  with  those  of  other  motives  therein.  Rough  stone  and  all  other  bold  and 
unconventional  motives  should  not  be  used  in  the  conventional  room.  Such 
materials  belong  in  the  den,  studio,  or  wherever  the  scheme  is  strong  enough  to 
hold  them.  The  unconventional  should  never  be  forced  upon  the  conventional; 
like  oil  and  water,  they  will  not  mix. 

The  accessories  of  the  fireplace — viz.,  andirons,  tongs,  shovel,  fenders  and 
coal  scuttle — should  be  carefully  chosen;  otherwise  a true  harmony  of  effect  is 
impossible.  Their  being  necessary  adjuncts  to  the  general  utdity  makes  this 
care  in  selection  doubly  important.  In  addition  to  the  general  design,  the  matter 
of  scale  should  be  considered.  Accessories  either  too  small  or  too  large  look 
out  of  place.  The  articles  in  question  are  commonly  constructed  of  wrought 
iron,  brass  and  bronze.  Iron  and  bronze  require  little  care  to  keep  them 
looking  trim,  while  brass,  on  the  contrary,  requires  labour  spent  in  polishing. 
This  extra  work  may  mean  much  to  some  of  us,  but  that  a good  bit  of  polished 
brass  is  clean  and  effective  is  undeniable.  1 he  common  method  of  disposing 
of  the  shovel  and  tongs  is  to  stand  them  in  little  hooks  or  racks  at  either  side  of 
the  fireplace.  This  is  the  simpler  and  better  method,  although  the  old  movable 
rack  may  be  used  if  desired.  The  old  solid  fenders  are  by  far  the  more  artistic, 
but  are  less  effective  against  flying  sparks,  as  well  as  heavier  and  harder  to  move 
than  the  folding-screen  patterns  of  later  date. 

The  fire  screen  is  often  a thing  of  beauty  when  designed  on  the  lines  of  fur- 
niture, in  which  light  it  is  best  considered.  Some  of  these  in  the  style  of  the 

Louis’s,  with  their  tapestry  panels,  are  very  beautiful;  those  of  the  Colonial 
period  are  both  dainty  and  unique.  It  is  better  that  the  back  should  not  be  covered 
with  fabric,  as  such  is  more  inflammable  than  wood,  and  at  the  least  is  liable  to 
be  scorched.  If  the  wooden  panel  be  covered  with  asbestos  paper  it  is  safer  yet. 
The  long  line  of  designs  headed  by  the  huge  peacock  and  the  stained-glass  freaks 
are  not  to  be  considered  for  a moment,  although  the  latter  may  be  made  credit- 
able in  the  hands  of  a good  designer.  If  a fire  board  be  used  to  close  the 

opening  in  summer,  it  should  be  fittingly  designed  for  the  purpose  and  not  be 
covered  with  remnants  of  the  wall  covering;  and  if  it  be  dark  in  tone  it  comes 
nearer  to  the  ordinary  conditions  suggested  by  the  open  fireplace.  It  may  be 
desirable  to  leave  the  fireplace  open  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation — a very  wise 
proceeding.  It  is  very  apt,  however,  to  smell  of  soot,  especially  in  damp  or 
rainy  weather,  but  since  a small  fire  is  usually  required  at  such  times  this 
objection  is  of  small  account. 

Where  wood  is  used  for  fuel,  sonie  provision  must  be  made  for  its  storage. 
To  the  collector  of  antiques  the  old  chest  naturally  suggests  itself,  while  the 
flanking  window  seat  with  a hinged  lid  may  effectually  solve  the  problem.  In  such 
case  it  is  wise,  owing  to  the  liability  to  scatter  dirt  through  the  house,  to  make 
provision  for  supplying  the  woodbox  from  the  outside,  when,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  window  seat,  it  comes  against  the  outside  wall  and  is  fixed.  This  is  readily 
done  by  making  a panelled  door  under  the  window  motive  and  under  the  seat; 
a door  which  is  made  on  a matched  batten  and  fastened  from  the  inside  is  best. 
This  door  may  have  a panel  or  any  other  treatment  on  the  outside. 


A library  alcove  at  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass.,  showing  a simple  and  practical  treatment.  The  sharp  projections  on  the  ends  of  seats,  however,  are  very  apt  to  tear  skirts 


124 


The  Country  House 


As  to  fireplaces  in  general,  it  is  best  to  have  them  in  all  available  rooms,  in- 
cluding chambers.  4 hey  are  the  best  of  ventilators,  and  in  the  late  spring  and 
early  fall  serve  admirably  to  remove  the  chill  from  the  house.  In  this  way  they 
serve  to  curtail,  for  a time  at  least,  the  generally  excessive  heat  of  the  furnace 
or  other  heater.  They  are  also  excellent  in  case  of  sickness,  for  the  above  reasons. 

As  the  chimney  and  fireplace  are  naturally  and  commonly  the  cause  of  many 
fires,  their  construction  should  be  carefully  looked  after.  Fig.  22  shows  an 
effective  method  for  their  safe  construction.  The  chimney  should  in  all  cases  be 
carried  up  from  the  ground  and  never  allowed  to  rely  on  any  woodwork  for 
support.  No  chimney  should  be  corbelled  out  more  than  8 inches  from  the 

original  line,  and  then  five  courses  of  brick  should  be 
used  to  effect  it.  Floor  timbers  should  not  be  let  into 
it  but  framed  around  it.  No  woodwork  should  come 
within  less  than  2 inches  of  the  brickwork  in  any  case, 
except  where  the  jamb  of  the  wooden  breast  or  mantel 
intersects  the  fireplace  facing;  this  jamb  should  be 
bedded  in  cement.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  rest  floor 
timbers  on  the  chimney  wall  it  should  be  done  on  a 
projecting  engaged  pier  and  the  ends  of  the  timbers  be 
kept  2 inches  from  the  chimney.  The  rough  brickwork 
should  be  8 inches  thick  outside  of  the  flue  lining; 
never  less.  A better  method  is  to  make  two  4-inch 
walls  with  a 2-inch  air  space  between  or,  in  other 
words,  a vaulted  wall.  This  can  be  carried  to  within 
a foot  of  the  under  side  of  the  rafters,  and  the  chimney 
be  topped  out  with  8 inches  of  brickwork.  If  small 
pieces  of  pipe  6 inches  long  are  laid  in  the  brickwork 
at  the  top  of  this  air  space  in  such  a manner  as  to 
connect  it  with  the  flue  at  the  nearest  joint  of  flue  lining, 
it  will  ventilate  the  air  space  and  so  tend  to  lower  the 


Seciiorv 


2?  Jan, 

Fig.  22.  Showing  a safe  method  of  chimney  and  fireplace 


a.  Rough  brickwork 

b.  Brick  facing 

c.  Brick  hearth 


d.  Cement 

e.  Trimmer  arch 

f.  Furring 


g.  Header 

h.  Ash-pit  cover 
j.  Skew  back 


k.  Flue  lining 

m.  Floor  timber 

n.  Wooden  partition 


construction 

o.  Stone  chimney  cap  s.  Hearth  border  w.  Fillet 

p.  Footing  stone  t.  Ash  pit  z.  Damper 

r.  Cellar  bottom  v.  Copper  chimney  flashing 


125 


Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing 


temperature  of  the  brickwork.  Holes  should  not  be  made  in  the  base  of 
this  air  space,  as  the  draught  thus  formed  would  tend  to  unequal  conditions 
calculated  to  crack  and  destroy  the  brickwork.  The  argument  against  this 
method  of  construc- 
tion will  be  on  the 
score  of  space  and 
labour,  but  no  space 
or  labour  should 
count  when  safety 
from  fire  is  at  stake. 

The  two  walls 
should  be  tied  to- 
gether with  headers 
every  s i x courses 
in  the  manner  of  a 
vaulted  wall,  which 
they  really  form. 

Under  no  circum- 
stances build  a 4- 
inch  chimney;  such 
work  is  criminal.  It 
endangers  the  lives 
of  all  the  occupants 
of  the  house,  which 
are  surely  worth  the 
additional  expense 
of  a good  job.  An 
expert  should  be  on 
the  work  continually 
to  see  that  the 
chimney  and  fire- 
place are  properly 
constructed. 

All  flues  should 
be  lined  with  terra- 
cotta or  burnt-clay 

linings,  laid  with  close  joints.  They  should  extend  from  the  bottom  of  the  flue 
and  throat  of  the  fireplace  to  the  extreme  top  of  the  chimney,  and  should  be 
built  in  with  the  brickwork  as  the  chimney  is  carried  up. 

Ordinary  fireplace  flues  should  be  8 by  12  inches  inside,  also  range  and  heater 
flues.  The  very  large  heater  may  require  a 12  x 12-inch  flue;  the  manufacturer 
of  the  heater  will  know  this.  The  flue  should  extend  directly  from  the  centre 
of  the  fireplace,  any  change  of  direction  to  be  made  with  gradual  slant.  Some 
claim  that  the  round  flue  will  draw  better  than  the  square  one,  which  may  well  be, 
as  the  ascending  heat  takes  a slightly  spiral  course.  A 10-inch  round  flue  is  the 
ordinary  size,  while  the  large  fireplace  for  cordwood  should  have  a flue  12  inches 


An  interesting  dining-room  fireplace  of  brick  and  painted  stucco 


126 


The  Country  House 


in  diameter.  The  round  flue  should  be  put  together  like  drainpipe,  with  a collar 
joint,  and  carefully  cemented.  An  8 x 8-inch  square  flue  may  answer  for  a very 
small  chamber  stove  or  the  like,  but  it  is  unfit  for  anything  else.  Insist  on  using 

an  accepted  make 
of  flue  lining.  Every 
fireplace,  range  and 
heater  should  have 
a separate  flue. 

1 he  height  of 
the  ordinary  fire- 
place should  not  ex- 
ceed 25  to  26  inches. 
An  excess  of  this 
allows  cold  air  to 
pass  up  the  chimney, 
as  the  opening  does 
not  heat  readily 
above  this  height. 
1 he  cold  air  in  pass- 
ing up  the  chimney 
will  check  the 
draught;  such  as 
comes  down  will 
rebound  from  the 
flat  shelf  back  of 
the  throat.  What 
cha  nee  is  there  for 
good  results  under 
such  conditions? 

1 lie  size  of  a fire- 
place for  the  burning 
of  cordwood  should 
be  4'  6"  wide  and 
3'  to  3'  6"  high. 

I he  depth  of  the 
ordinary  fireplace  is 

Parlor  mantel  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  This  is  a fine  example  of  elaborate  modern  Colonial.  r ' ( \ 

The  painted  panel  makes  a good  central  spot  in  the  composition  * ^ Oil!  I \ tO  I 0 UlCnCS  * 

of  larger  sizes  from 

18  to  26  inches.  The  throat  of  the  fireplace  should  be  directly  over  its  centre, 
and  should  be  made  about  one-eighth  the  area  of  the  fireplace  opening.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  this  opening  is  too  large,  but  an  iron  plate  resting  on  the 
aforesaid  shelf  serves  as  a damper,  and  can  be  drawn  forward  by  means  of  a poker 
so  as  to  reduce  the  opening.  Some  forms  of  dampers  are  made  to  be  controlled  from 
the  outside.  1 he  excess  opening  gives  a leeway  for  days  of  bad  draught.  I he  fire- 
place should  be  lined  with  fire  brick,  laid  with  close  joints  or  an  iron  lining,  as 
may  be  preferred.  I he  straight-headed  fireplace  should  be  supported  by  iron  bars. 


127 


Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing 


The  fireplace  facing  can  be  of  stone,  brick  or  tile,  as  desired,  and  show  an 
8-inch  or,  better,  a 12-inch  face  clear  of  the  woodwork.  There  should  be  an 
iron  cover  to  the  ash  dump  provided  at  the  back  of  the  fireplace  which  connects 
with  the  ash  pit  in 
the  cellar.  This  ash 
pit  should  extend 
to  the  first  floor, 
and  should  have  a 
12  x 16-inch  iron 
door  with  frames 
(in  cellar),  built  into 
the  chimney  during 
its  laying  up.  Thus 
the  ashes  can  be 
dumped  into  the  pit, 
which  is  cleaned  out 
when  necessary. 

The  hearth  is 
built  on  a trimmer 
arch  which  extends 
from  20  to  24  inches 
from  the  chimney 
breast  to  the  “skew 
back”  attached  to 
the  header  beam. 

Two  inches  of  con- 
crete are  laid  there- 
on and  brought  to 
a level,  on  which 
rests  the  tile  or  brick 
hearth.  As  the  prov- 
ince of  the  “skew 
back”  is  to  keep 
the  trimmer  arch 
from  falling  when 
the  header  shrinks, 
it  should  not  be 
omitted.  The  “tail 

beams”  or  short  floor  timbers  which  butt  against  the  “header”  between  the  two 
“trimmer”  or  side  beams,  are  usually  tenoned  into  the  header,  and  further 
supported  by  an  iron  stirrup  carried  under  them  and  turned  over  the  header  beam. 

As  fire  spreads  readily  through  the  flues  made  by  the  hollow  partitions,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  such  flues  be  cut  off  by  the  insertion  of  some  non- 
combustible material.  In  brick  walls  courses  of  brick  between  the  flooring  and 
plastering  are  projected  from  the  wall  face,  so  that  fire  cannot  pass  up  the  flues 
between  the  furring  and  the  wall.  A rough  stonewall  should  be  lined  with  brick 


Old  mantel  from  the  Lee  House,  Marblehead.  An  interesting  and  effective  treatment, 
with  a touch  of  French  in  its  design 


128 


The  Country  House 


and  treated  in  like  manner,  or  if  the  studs  be  set  against  the  rough  stonework  a 
stop  of  bricks  and  mortar  should  be  inserted  at  the  floor  level  to  shut  off  the  flue. 

In  a wooden  outside  wall  the  space  from  the  foundation  wall  to  the  under 

side  of  the  rough 
floor  boarding,  and 
from  the  inner  face 
of  the  foundation 
wall  to  the  outside 
boarding,  should  be 
filled  in  solid  with 
brick  laid  in  mortar 
mixed  with  plaster 
of  paris.  Also 
between  the  studs 
above  the  flooring 
three  or  more 
courses  of  brick 
should  be  laid  in 
like  manner,  to  ex- 
tend above  the  upper 
plaster  ground. 

In  the  inner 
partitions  on  the  first 
floor  bricks  and  mor- 
tar should  be  laid  on 
the  floor  joist,  its  full 
width,  to  the  height 
of  the  under  side  of 
the  rough  flooring, 
and  three  or  more 
courses  above  it  be- 
tween the  studs  to  a 
height  above  the 
plaster  ground. 

On  floors  above  the  first  brick  and  mortar  should  be  laid  on  all  partition  heads 
to  extend  to  above  the  plaster  ground.  Two  courses  of  brick  and  mortar  should 
be  laid  on  top  of  all  partition  bridging  to  the  full  width  of  the  partition.  I he 
space  between  the  plate  and  the  under  surface  of  roof  boarding  should  be  filled  in 
solid  with  brick  and  mortar  to  the  full  width  of  the  partition. 

Where  a partition  is  set  to  extend  only  one  story,  independent  of  partitions 
above  and  below,  the  space  from  the  footing  to  a height  above  the  plaster  ground 
should  be  filled  with  brick  and  mortar;  also  from  the  partition  head  to  the  under 
side  of  the  floor  boarding. 

Where  the  walls  of  attic  rooms  are  furred  in  from  the  line  of  the  outer  wall, 
one  course  of  brick  and  mortar  should  extend  from  the  partition  head  to  the 
under  side  of  the  roof  boarding.  The  hollow  space  occasioned  by  the  furring  out 


A well-tied  fireplace  motive,  entirely  out  of  the  room  proper.  The  old  fire  frame  could 
well  be  used  in  a treatment  of  this  sort 


129 


Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing 


of  the  chimney  breast  should  be  carefully  looked  to.  Before  setting  the  furring 
the  ceiling  should  be  lathed  with  metal  lathing  and  rough  plastered  from  the 
chimney  outward  as  far  as  the  breast  will  extend.  After  the  furring  studs  have 


been  set, two  courses 
of  brick  and  mor- 
tar should  be  laid 
upon  the  floor  space 
thus  enclosed  and 
on  the  partition 
footing.  Brick  and 
mortar  stops  should 
also  be  inserted  on 
the  partition  head 
to  the  under  side  of 
the  flooring. 

The  wooden 
partition  about  the 
staircases,  and  such 
rooms  as  contain 
staircases,  should  be 
filled  solid  with 
brick  and  mortar 
from  the  first-floor 
beams  up.  The  said 
beams  should  be 
properly  supported 
in  the  cellar  to  carry 
this  extra  weight, 
and  should  be  cov- 
ered with  metal  lath- 
ing and  plastered, 
so  as  not  to  leave 
any  exposed  sur- 
faces. If  the  par- 
tition should  not  have  a bearing  or  support  from  the  cellar  up,  or  be  built  about 
the  stairs  and  upon  the  stringers,  two  courses  of  brick  and  mortar,  extending 
horizontally  on  cross  bindings  at  intervals  of  not  less  than  3 feet,  beside  the  usual 
number  of  courses  at  the  foot  and  head  of  the  partition,  should  be  used.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  in  the  framing  to  carry  this  extra  weight.  The  space  between 
the  stringers  at  intervals  of  3 feet  should  be  filled  solid  with  mortar  mixed  with 
plaster  of  paris.  Wherever  the  stringers  set  on  the  floor  or  landing  in  such  a way 
as  to  offer  a bearing,  this  space  could  be  filled  to  the  limit  with  bricks  and  mortar. 

It  is  always  best  in  the  planning  of  the  staircase  motive  to  have  the  connection 
continuous  from  cellar  to  attic.  This  arrangement  admits  of  cutting  ofF  by  double 
(or  single)  doors  on  each  story,  so  that  the  stair  well  becomes,  with  proper  fire- 
proofing, practically  an  independent  tower.  If  this  is  done,  cellar  stairs  should 


An  old  Salem  mantel  of  simple,  direct  design.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  common  end 
of  the  old  fireplace  is  to  be  harnessed  to  a stove 


130 


The  Country  House 


be  included  in  the  motive,  and  should  be  enclosed  in  a brick  wall,  with  a fireproof 
door  opening  into  the  cellar  and  an  exit  into  the  open  air.  An  alternative  is 
shown  in  Fig.  23.  This  will  take  a little  more  room  than  the  ordinary  effort, 
but  in  a large  outlay,  where  it  would  add  materially  to  the  general  safety,  the 
extra  room  would  not  be  missed.  It  consists  of  two  adjoining  and  practically  in- 
dependent wells,  connected  only  by  fireproof  doors.  The  staircases  alternate 
from  one  well  to  the  other  on  the  successive  stories,  and  in  this  way  cut  off  one 
floor  from  another.  The  fireproof  door  mentioned  should  be  of  the  pattern  de- 
scribed under  that  head. 

Back  plastering  is  applied  to  the  inside  of  the  outside  boarding  in  a wooden 
wall.  The  best  method  is  to  furr  out  with  lath  placed  in  the  angles  formed  by 
the  studs  and  boarding,  and  lath  and  rough  plaster  on  this.  Thus  a clinch  is 
secured  for  the  plastering.  This  should  all  be  done  after  the  laying  of  brick 
fire  stops. 

Metal  lathing  should  be  used  in  preference  to  wood,  especially  on  the 
cellar  ceiling,  chimney  breasts,  the  under  side  of  stairs  and  about  the  staircase.  If 
applied  to  wood  furring,  it  should  be  held  in  place  by  staples.  Metal  lathing 
should  also  be  used  wherever  a furnace  pipe  or  other  heating  pipes  pass  through 
the  partition. 

Doors  made  of  white  pine  and  covered  with  tin  on  both  sides,  over  which 
veneering  is  applied,  are  almost  fireproof.  The  door  frame  should  be  covered  in 

like  manner.  The  above  will  stand 
more  than  the  iron  door.  For  rougher 
work  a door  covered  with  tin,  without 
the  veneering,  will  answer. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  fire  stop 
in  wooden  walls,  the  danger  from  the 
furnace  is  further  reduced  as  follows: 
When  furnace  pipes  pass  through  par- 
titions they  should  be  made  double,  with 
a ^-inch  air  space,  and  the  adjoining 
studs  should  be  protected  by  tin  set  on 
furrings  upon  it.  I he  studs  should  be 
at  least  3 inches  from  the  pipe.  All 
hot-air  pipes  should  be  covered  with  a 
wrapping  of  T>nch  asbestos  to  a point 
fully  15  feet  from  the  furnace.  The 
space  about  the  double  pipe  can  be 
filled  with  mortar  or  plaster  of  paris  to 
good  advantage.  One  register  (perhaps 
that  in  the  hall)  should  be  fastened  open 
so  that  it  cannot  be  closed.  This  is  an 
infallible  gauge  on  the  furnace.  The 
cold-air  box  should  be  constructed  entirely  of  galvanised  iron,  and  so  arranged 
that  when  the  cold  air  is  cut  off  the  supply  will  come  from  the  cellar.  The  inlet 
for  cold  air  should  supply  a sufficient  amount  of  air  at  the  top  of  the  furnace. 


Hillu/ay 


Fig.  23.  Showing  a fireproof  staircase,  which  utilises  two 
disconnected  wells 


a.  Air  space 

b.  False  ceiling 

c.  Fireproof  door 


d.  Exit  door 

e.  Ground  level 

f.  Cellar  bottom 


h.  Floor  level 
k.  Line  of  house 
v.  Grated  vent 


Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing  13 1 

between  cover  of  the  hot-air  chamber  and  cover  of  the  furnace,  that  the  ceiling 
above  may  not  be  overheated.  A galvanised-iron  shield,  6 inches  larger  than 
the  diameter  of  the 
heater,  should  be 
suspended  from  the 
ceiling  above  the 
heater,  leaving  a 
sufficient  air  space 
between  it  and  the 
ceiling.  Never  use 
other  than  a metal 
ash  can;  wood  is  too 
dangerous.  Always 
keep  matches  in 
fireproof  boxes  with 

e roofs 
laid  in  mortar, 
though  expensive, 
make  a fire-resisting 
surface  where  it  is 
often  sorely  needed. 

If  ever  an  absolutely 

fireproof  mixture  is  produced,  the  place  for  it  above  all  others  is  on  the  shingle  roof. 

Gutters  should  be  either  metal  or  metal  lined;  many  fires  are  started  from 
burning  firebrands  lodging  in  them  after  rolling  off  the  roof.  For  the  above 
reasons  slate  is  preferable  to  shingle,  and  metal  gutters  to  those  of  wood. 

All  wooden  structures  should  have  stone  or  brick  underpinning  at  least  12 
inches  from  the  ground,  and  no  woodwork  should  come  below  that  height  unless 
otherwise  properly  protected  from  the  possibility  of  fire  from  burning  grass. 
Openings  under  piazzas  and  porches  for  lattice  work  should  not  be  made 
nearer  to  the  ground  than  12  inches,  and  the  lower  step  and  step  buttresses  are 
best  constructed  of  non-combustible  material. 

A flagging  of  brick,  stone  or  composition  should  extend  fully  16  inches  from 
the  wall  of  the  cellar  bulkhead.  The  reason  for  the  above  precaution  is  that 
mischievous  boys  and  careless  workmen  often  start  serious  fires  while  burning  out 
grass,  and  it  is  well  to  forstall  this  as  far  as  possible. 

Fireproof  paper  should  be  laid  between  all  under  and  upper  floors,  between 
the  outside  boarding  and  sheathing  of  all  vertical  wooden  walls,  and  between 
roof  shingles  and  roof  boards.  The  ordinary  floor  deafening,  which  is  usually 
composed  of  cement,  sand  and  cinders,  makes  an  excellent  reinforcement  to  the 
fireproof  paper  in  floor  construction. 

One  length  of  fire  hose  placed  on  each  floor,  including  the  cellar  and  attic, 
so  as  to  cover  the  entire  area,  is  advised.  It  should  be  in  an  open  hall  way,  pre- 
ferably near  the  stairway,  and  should  always  be  connected  and  ready  for  use.  It 
should  be  located  near  a night  light  so  that  it  can  be  easily  found  in  the  dark,  and 


cover. 

Shingl 


132 


The  Country  House 


it  need  not  be  an  unsightly  feature  if  planned  for  in  the  first  place.  The  globe 
might  be  red,  with  “Fire  Hose”  ground  in  it.  This  is  essential,  as  it  might  be  a 

guest  who  would  dis- 
cover the  fire.  A 
2 - i n c h standpipe 
from  the  main  ser- 
vice or,  in  the  ex- 
treme, the  attic  tank 
will  supply  these. 
The  ordinary  pails 
of  water  in  the  cellar 
kitchen  and  attic  are 
handy  and  effective. 
If  the  attic  tank  be 
employed,  a length 
of  hose  may  be 
handy  for  attach- 
ment to  the  main 
that  supplies  it. 

The  above  pre- 
cautions are  im- 
portant. They  are 
always  ready,  and 
much  time  is  saved. 
A fire  checked  in 
time  may  mean  the 
saving  of  lives  and 
money. 

The  question  of 
whether  or  not  the 
lightning  rod  is 
really  useful  or  is  an 
invitation  to  destruc- 
tion has  not  as  yet 
been  definitely 
settled ; even  the  best 
experts  disagree.  If 
used,  they  should  be 
of  copper,  which  is 
the  best  conductor, 

and  they  should  be  properly  insulated  and  grounded  deep  enough  to  reach  moist 
earth.  The  neglect  to  attend  to  these  two  points  is  probably  the  cause  of  the  utter 
worthlessness,  and  even  dangerous  qualities,  of  most  lightning  rods.  The  ordi- 
nary metal  gutter  and  conductor,  if  connected  with  points  on  the  roof  and  the 
moist  earth  at  the  bottom,  will  be  less  ugly  and  fully  as  effective  as  the  regular  rod. 
Moisture  is  a great  conductor  of  electricity;  this  fact  should  be  remembered. 


A most  excellent  rendering,  influenced  by  the  styles  of  Louis  XV.  and  XVI. 


133 


Fireplaces,  Chimneys  and  Fireproofing 


small 

rope 


and  medium-sized 
each  chamber 


in 


country  house, 
or  second-story 


the  precaution 
room  is  most 


For  the  ordinary 
of  a coil  of  knotted 
excellent  and  inex- 
pensive. This  rope 
should  be  made  fast 
to  the  upper  part  of 
the  wall  near  the 
most  desirable  win- 
dow or,  if  possible, 
between  two  win- 
dows. A recess 
about  16  inches 
high  can  be  made 
between  the  stud- 
ding, and  the  rope 
secured  to  a large 
screw  eye  inserted 
firmly  in  the  top.  A 
picture  hinged  at 
the  top  will  cover 
the  coil  within  the 
recess,  and  a large 
silk  cord  securely 
fastened  to  the  end 
of  the  rope  may  be 
allowed  to  hang  in 
full  view  below  it. 

If  a tassel  having  a 
metal  ring  engraved 
with  “Fire  Rope” 
be  attached  to  the 
end  of  the  cord,  the 
unfamiliar  guest  will 
soon  understand  its 
meaning,  even  if  not 
told.  This  contri- 
vance is  easily 
found  in  the  dark, 
and  as  easily 
pulled  from  the 

recess.  If  small  children  are  about  it  may  be  advisable  to  shorten  the  cord. 

In  larger  houses,  in  addition  to  the  above,  it  may  be  deemed  advisable  to 
have  a regular  fire  escape.  Fig.  24  shows  the  best  method,  which  is  far  from 
being  an  ugly  one.  It  is  a staircase  tower  of  brick  (stone-faced  if  in  a stone 
house)  which  has  no  connection  with  the  house  other  than  by  the  several  balconies 
at  each  story  above  the  first.  The  exits  from  the  house  to  the  balconies  should 


Mantel  at  Fairhaven,  Mass.  This  design  follows  closely  the  better  motives  of  the  old 
English  woodwork.  Charles  Brigham,  architect. 


134  The  Country  House 

be  off  a common  passage  and  away  from  the  general  stairways.  The  balconies 
should  not  cross  in  front  of  other  openings  in  the  interval  between  the  main  exit 
and  the  tower,  although  they  may  extend  beyond  to  include  chambers  if  desired. 

The  doors  into  the  tower  from  the  bal- 
conies should  not  have  locks.  The 
simple  catch  is  sufficient,  and  the  doors 
themselves  should  be  armoured  with 
heavy  tin  on  both  sides.  The  exit  door 
at  the  bottom  should  likewise  be  fire- 
proof and  without  a lock;  a simple  bolt 
on  the  inside  is  its  best  fastening;  never 
use  a key.  It  might  be  wise  to  provide 
a small  sledge,  which  could  be  tied  to 
the  handle  of  the  door  by  a 4-foot  cord. 
In  case  the  door  or  bolt  should  stick  this  could  he  used.  I he  door  should  swing 
outward.  All  windows  in  the  tower  should  be  on  the  side  farthest  from  the 
building,  small,  and  heavily  glazed.  It  might  not  be  a bad  idea  to  screen  the  exit 
door  with  ivy  or  some  other  climbing  growth.  This  will  effectively  hide  it  from 
the  prying  eye. 

An  alternative  form  of  the  above  might  be  made  by  substituting  a sliding 
pole  for  the  stairs,  after  the  manner  of  fire  houses.  The  size  of  the  tower  would 
be  much  reduced,  and  even  the  women,  after  a trial  trip,  would  have  no  trouble 
or  hesitancy  in  using  it. 


Fig.  24.  Showing  an  effective  form  of  fire  escape 


Fireplace  in  a Bohemian  cottage  at  Media,  Pa.  Bailey  & Truscott,  architects 


“ Indian  Harbor,”  Greenwich,  Conn.,  the  country  house  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Benedict.  Carr'ere  & Hastings,  architects 


A simple  and  well-lighted  hall  at  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Halls  and  Stairways 

HE  hall  is  the  oldest  room  of  the  private  dwelling.  It  is  satu- 
rated with  tradition  and  romance.  We  moderns  strive  for  these 
in  vain,  forgetful  of  the  origin  and  true  purpose  of  the  room. 
In  the  early  feudal  dwelling  of  northern  Europe  the  hall  was 
in  reality  the  house  itself,  being  used  for  entertainment,  eating 
and  sleeping  in  turn.  It  was  large  in  size  and  all-important  in 
the  consideration  of  the  building.  As  time  went  on  other  rooms 
were  tacked  on  in  a somewhat  haphazard  fashion — mere  necessities,  unstudied 
and  unrelated.  l his  general  jumble  of  rooms  was  due  partly  to  the  fact  that 
the  feudal  castle,  being  built  on  a rough  and  irregular  site  for  purposes  of  defence, 
naturally  communicated  its  lack  of  symmetry  to  the  plan. 

With  the  added  rooms  came  the  staircase,  an  equally  unimportant  necessity. 
This  was  spiral  in  form,  to  economise  space,  small  in  size  and  conveniently 
stowed  away  within  the  thickness  of  a wall,  and  later  in  turrets  as  well  as 
walls.  As  it  was  deemed  important,  owing  to  the  spirit  of  the  times,  that 
there  should  be  several  ways  of  traversing  the  motley  array  of  rooms,  these 
much  begrudged  must-be-hads  were  peppered  into  the  general  lay-out  with  an 
apparent  abandon  truly  remarkable.  The  secret  staircase  of  romance,  under 
guard  of  concealed  buttons  and  sliding  panels,  had  its  beginning  in  the  rugged 
existence  of  this  period.  This  belittlement  of  the  staircase  continued  with  the 

136 


137 


Halls  and  Stairways 

Gothic  style,  and  extended  even  into  the  Renaissance.  In  fact,  with  the  Ger- 
mans and  French  this  latter  style  was  for  a long  period  simply  an  application 
of  classic  detail  to  the  old  lines  and  arrangements.  Later,  they  learned  from  the 
Italians  the  possibilities  and  true  importance  of  the  staircase  and  profited  accord- 
ingly, but  it  never  entirely  lost  the  clearly  defined  earmarks  of  feudalism. 

In  Italy  the  existing  conditions  served  to  bring  about  far  different  results. 
Her  walled  towns  made  the  castellated  building  of  the  North  unnecessary. 
Being  the  birthplace  of  the  simple  and  regular  plan,  the  importance  of  the 
stairway  as  a decorative  feature  was  soon  recognised  and  its  true  relation  to  the 
house  and  hall  established. 

Therefore  the  tortuous,  winding  staircase  was  early  abandoned  for  other  less 
secret  communications,  and  the  stairway  became  a feature  of  the  design.  The 
principal  forms  used  were  that  of  the  straight  staircase  between  two  flanking 
walls  and  that  which  had  one  landing  and  a half  turn  in  its  flight.  This  latter 
form  admitted  of  a continuous  motive  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  building, 
and  galleries  on  the  second  story  and  above,  which  occupied  about  the  same 
space  and  held  the  same  relation  to  the  apartments  of  these  stories  as  the  general 
hall  below  did  to  the  first-floor  plan.  These  two  forms  were  also  those  used 
by  the  English  in  their  work  following  the  feudal  period. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  the  northern  staircase  was  thrown  in  without 
regard  to  the  hall.  One  was  more  likely  to  find  oneself  in  the  privacy  of  a lady’s 
chamber  or  hanging  over  the  edge  of  a cliff  than  in  any  close  relation  to  the  room  of 
many  uses.  Hence  the  guest  who  wandered  at  night  was  very  apt  to  meet  with 
trouble,  if  not  positive  danger  to  life  and  limb.  With  the  Italians,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  staircase 
often  started  from 
the  entrance  way, 
thus  being  easily  ac- 
cessible. The  Eng- 
lish outlay  was 
somewhat  more 
complicated.  In  the 
Gothic  houses  the 
entrance  door  open- 
ed directly  into  the 
hall.  Frequently  a 
screen  was  erected 
across  the  end  of 
this  room,  which 
replaced  in  a meas- 
ure the  vestibule 
and  at  the  same 
time  afforded  pri- 
vate passage  to  the 

staircase  located  at  one  end.  For  some  reason  or  other  the  English  architect, 
though  at  a later  period  borrowing  extensively  from  the  French,  never  quite 


An  upper  stair-landing,  showing  the  ramp  and  curve  of  the  hand  rail 


The  Country  House 


understood  the  true  value  of  the  vestibule  as  did  his  neighbour  across  the 
channel;  consequently  the  vestibule  is  seldom  used  in  England.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  the  staircase  was  cut  off  from  the  hall,  and  the  hall  itself  more  or  less 
of  a vestibule,  as  far  as  use  is  concerned. 

With  the  Colonial  the  vestibule  was  still  omitted,  after  the  manner  of  its 
model,  while  the  staircase  was  condensed  into,  and  became  a feature  of,  the  hall. 
This  was  probably  due  to  the  general  simplification  of  the  plan  and  to  an  effort  to 
save  space. 

In  the  construction  of  the  Italian  staircase,  marble  was  the  chief  material  em- 
ployed. It  was  used  for  the  rails  and  balusters  as  well  as  the  stairs  proper.  The 

French  had  a weak- 
ness for  the  iron 
rail  and  baluster,  in 
which  material  some 
very  beautiful  work 
was  executed.  The 
English,  though 
using  both  marble 
and  iron  in  a meas- 
ure, had  a decided 
tendency  toward 
wood. 

As  the  Italian 
marble  staircase  had 
its  natural  origin  in 
the  marble  finish  of 
its  halls,  so  the 
English  wooden  ef- 
fort was  but  the 
natural  treatment 
where  wooden  ceil- 
ings and  wall  panel- 
ling were  used.  A 
mixture  of  these  two 
would  have  been  de- 
cidedly out  of  har- 
mony. 

There  are  sev- 
eral things  to  be 
considered  in  the 
planning  of  the  hall 
and  staircase  of  the 
, . . „ American  country 

Old  Colonial  stairs  at  Jamaica  Plain*  Mass.  . / 

house.  first,  it  is 

safe  to  lay  down  as  a fixed  rule  that  every  house  should  have  a vestibule.  This 
gives  two  doors  between  the  house  proper  and  the  out-of-doors,  which  is  quite 


139 


Halls  and  Stairways 


important.  It  is  not  conductive  to  a cheerful  temper  to  have  a chance  visitor 
enter  your  hall  and  track  clay  or  mud  across  your  best  rug,  intermingled  with  a 
rivulet  deposited  by  a wet  umbrella.  If 
the  said  vestibule  exists,  he  will  be  freer 
from  slander;  and  if  a closet  or  recess 
for  wet  clothing,  etc.,  is  provided,  his 
reception  will  be  most  cheerful.  A 
small  seat  added  will  allow  one  to  re- 
move rubbers  and  overshoes  with  some 
degree  of  comfort,  and  a box  under  the 
same  offers  storage  for  this  very  neces- 
sary footgear  when  not  in  use.  The 
vestibule  further  serves  to  do  away 
with  the  cheerful  matched-board 
storm  porch  which  many  otherwise 
sensible  people  allow  to  decorate  the 
front  of  their  houses.  As  has  been 
previously  stated,  a glazed  outside  door 
of  side  lights  are  very  serviceable  if 
one  cares  whom  he  admits  to  his  house. 

It  is  just  as  well  that  you  are  able  to 
see  without  being  seen. 

The  hall  proper,  in  conjunction 
with  offshooting  hallways,  is  used  as 
a means  of  communication  with  the 
various  rooms,  and  as  such  should  be 
neither  too  large  nor  too  small.  7 he 
hall  is  really  the  heart  of  the  house,  and 
the  hallways  and  stairs  the  arteries  of  the  system.  If  the  hall  is  to  be  used  as  a 
reception  room,  the  staircase  should  be  separated  from  it  in  such  a manner  that  a 
person  can  readily  traverse  the  rest  of  the  system  without  being  obliged  to  pass 
through  it  at  all.  I he  vestibule  should  likewise  have  separate  connection  with 
the  kitchen,  so  that  servants  are  not  obliged  to  interrupt  conversations,  to  their  own 
annoyance  as  well  as  that  of  the  host  and  the  visitor.  Where  the  hall  is  used  as  a 
living  room  (a  return  to  first  principles),  it  is  doubly  advisable  that  the  above 
precautions  be  observed.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  living-room  hall  is  only  fit  for 
the  free  life  of  the  shore  or  mountain  summer  home.  It  may  be  picturesque  and 
attractive,  but  convenient — never!  The  servants  will  spread  your  affairs  among 
the  neighbours  fast  enough  without  coming  into  the  living  room  after  information, 
as  becomes  almost  unavoidable.  In  a word,  the  publicity  of  the  hall  makes  it  un- 
suitable for  a living  room. 


Landing  of  Jamaica  Plain  stairs,  showing  details  of  post, 
balusters  and  rail 


In  the  planning  of  the  staircase  it  is  best  to  see  that  it  is  well  lighted  and  ven- 
tilated; also  that  it  is  not  so  much  crowded  upon  itself  as  to  make  the  handling 
of  furniture  next  to  an  impossibility.  With  this  in  view,  plenty  of  head  room 
should  always  be  given,  and  the  landings  be  generous  enough  to  admit  of  the 
turning  of  furniture  upon  it.  Ample  staircases  even  are  apt  to  be  scarred  and 


A Japanese  rendering  at  Fall  River,  Mass.  Cram,  Wentworth  & Goodhue,  architects 


Halls  and  Stairways  141 

battered  unless  you  watch  the  expressman.  If  this  is  true  of  the  carefully  calcu- 
lated scheme,  then  the  true  story  of  the  careless  effort  is  not  for  juvenile  litera- 
ture. The  importance  of  the  easy  staircase  is  not  to  be  underestimated;  this  one 
problem  is  the  architect’s  usual  stumbling  block.  A professional  stair  builder, 
with  much  architectural  knowledge,  has  been  known  to  plan  a flight  of  attic  stairs 
which  were  decent  in  every  way  but  one — when  you  reached  the  top  you  had  to 
crawl  on  hands  and  knees  in  order  to  get  into  the  attic.  This  may  be  a trifling 
inconvenience  for  some,  but  most  of  us  would  object  seriously. 

All-important  in  the  stair  problem  is  the  question  of  easy  treads.  Some  few 
wise  people  prefer  to  have  their  sleeping  rooms  for  constant  use  on  the  first  floor 
and  the  excess  on  the  second  floor,  knowing  full  well  that  they  were  never  intended 
to  climb  stairs.  To  these  we  remove  our  hats  with  a mixture  of  respect  and  awe 
— awe  because  of  the  strength  of  character  that  would  do  a sensible  thing  in 
opposition  to  the  general  custom.  Among  the  masses  of  country  folks  the  first- 
floor  bedroom  has  long  been  used  and  appreciated.  Returning  to  the  tread 
question:  The  usual  rule  for  determining  this  is  that  the  product  of  rise  and 

tread  shall  equal  70.  Hence,  if  the  tread  be  10  inches,  the  rise  should  be  7 
inches;  if  the  tread  be  12  inches,  the  rise  should  be  5!  inches.  For  ordinary 
stairs  the  10-inch  tread  is  as  steep  as  should  be  made  for  comfort;  if  it  be  pos- 
sible, the  12-inch  tread  should  be  used  for  front  stairs. 

The  common 
material  for  the 
stairs  of  our  country 
houses  is  wood.  As 
the  Colonial  and 
Elizabethan  seem  to 
be  the  prevailing 
styles,  this  is  well. 

Hardwood  treads, 
hand  rails  and 
newel  posts  are  to  be 
preferred,  even  if,  as 
in  the  Colonial,  the 
newel  be  painted, 
as  are  the  risers,  bal- 
usters and  stringer 
board. 

It  is  always 
well  to  have  a sep- 
arate staircase  for 
the  use  of  the  ser- 
vants, thus  avoiding 
their  use  of  the  main 

staircase.  In  the  small  house,  one  way  of  condensing  the  stairway  is  to  carry 
the  back  stairs  to  the  main  stairway  landing,  making  the  half  flight  above  common 
to  both.  This  should  be  done  in  such  a manner  that  a person  using  the  back 


142  The  Country  House 

stairs  cannot  be  seen  from  the  hall  below.  In  the  case  of  the  front  stairs  hav- 
ing a straight  run  this  condensing  cannot  be  done;  it  is  only  possible  where  a 
landing  and  half  turn  are  made. 

As  to  the  treatment  of  vestibule,  hall  and  staircase,  there  are  certain  things 
to  be  considered.  We  have  already  likened  the  hall  to  the  heart;  being  such,  it 
should  be  simple,  strong  and  vigorous.  The  treatment  of  the  vestibule  should  be 

severe;  a mere  civ- 
ility to  the  knocker 
at  the  gate.  The 
character  of  the  hall 
relaxes  a little— the 
courtesy  of  admit- 
tance. The  stair- 
case,  a private 
thoroughfare,  should 
suggest  a passage, 
without  attraction 
to  destroy  the  effect 
of  its  true  purpose. 
While  not  so  severe 
as  the  hall,  it  can 
hardly,  in  good 
taste,  come  very 
close  to  the  full  re- 
laxation of  the  living 
room. 

On  the  above 
basis  of  relationship 

we  will,  as  already  suggested,  make  the  vestibule  simple  and  severe.  The  marble 
or  simple  tile  or  mosaic  floor  is  appropriate  for  this,  with  forceful  doors  and  little 
if  any  decoration. 

The  hall  floor  may  be  paved  with  tile,  marble  or  mosaic  of  a character  less 
severe  than  the  vestibule.  If  hardwood  is  used,  a simple,  vigorous  border  would 
be  in  keeping  and  the  wooden  panelled  dado  with  panelled  stucco  walls  (pro- 
vided the  walls  are  not  entirely  of  wood)  would  carry  out  well  the  general  feeling 
of  the  design.  Stucco  walls  call  for  a stucco  ceding,  or  perhaps  a beamed  ceiling 
with  stucco  panels.  Beams  thus  used  should  have  some  apparent  means  of 
support  from  the  floor,  as  suggested  by  the  pilaster.  In  the  case  of  the  wooden 
walls  the  beamed  or  panelled  ceiling  seems  imperative.  The  embellishment  should, 
however,  be  simple  and  devoid  of  flourish.  Such  rich  touches  as  are  introduced 
should  be  carefully  studied,  that  they  may  not  destroy  the  dignity  to  which  the 
room  is  entitled.  Where  the  marble  floor  is  used,  the  base  should  be  of  marble 
to  harmonise.  Whatever  is  done  with  the  room  in  the  way  of  finish,  its  true 
purpose  should  never  be  lost  sight  of. 

Some  claim  that  the  fireplace  should  not  be  used  as  a decorative  feature  of 
the  hall.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  purist  and  the  true  intention  of  the 


A modern  hall  at  Hingham,  Mass. 


Halls  and  Stairways 


143 


room,  this  is  un- 
doubtedly  so. 

Nevertheless  there 
is  a decided  ten- 
dency toward  its  use 
in  this  country.  The 
trouble  lies  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  gener- 
ally made  too  “ pret- 
ty,” the  chief  fault 
with  all  our  halls. 

We  have  spent  much 
money  and  elabor- 
ated upon  the  old 
Colonial  models,  hot 
it  seems  as  if  much 
of  this  were  done 
very  unwisely.  If 
the  fireplace  be  used 
at  all  it  should  be 
simple  and  severe  in 
design,  carrying 
with  it  a distinct  feel- 
ing of  strong  repose 
manding  respect  rather 
fellowship.  A largeness 
help  to  effect  this;  thus  a 6-foot  open- 
ing is  to  be  preferred  to  one  of  smaller 
width. 

The  great  trouble  with  our  stair- 
cases is,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hall,  a 
meaningless  smallness  of  scale  approach- 
ing often  to  insignificance.  It  is  not 
the  chamber,  in  which  the  barefoot  and 
the  rounded  turn  of  the  shoulder  suggest 
like  softness  or  luxurious  repose,  hut 
the  shodden  foot  and  the  movement  of 
traffic.  In  other  words,  the  staircase 
is  not  asleep,  but  wide  awake  to  its 
own  importance.  Of  course  it  is  allow- 
able to  make  the  details  a little  richer 
than  those  of  the  hall,  but  any  leaning 
toward  minuteness  is  very  much  in  the 
wrong  direction.  The  importance  of 
easy  stairs  has  already  been  touched 
upon — the  one  thing  our  architects  have 


An  example  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  showing  a simple  ironwork  and  hall  seat.  When  the 
hall  is  used  as  a reception  room  the  seat  is  an  important  consideration,  and  its  location  so  as  to 
be  handy  and  yet  not  under  foot  is  not  always  an  easy  problem.  The  above  treatment  is  unique 
and  certainly  successful  and  seems  to  be  handy  to  the  front  door,  which  is  important 


am 


dignity,  co In- 
dian offering 
of  scale  will 


A simple  staircase  well  adapted  to  an  unpretentious  house 


144 


The  Country  House 


seemed  to  grasp.  They  frequently  bump  your  head  or  blockade  your  furniture 
in  the  carrying  out  of  some  freak  effect,  but  their  eye  to  the  rise  and  tread  is 

generally  praise- 
worthy. 

It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  most  wise 
and  appropriate  ef- 
forts in  the  direction 
of  stair  rails  and 
posts  should  be  the 
most  dangerous  for 
children.  A change 
must  be  made,  but 
it  should  be  effected 
largely  on  the  chil- 
dren, and  not  on  the 
aforesaid  rails  and 
posts.  In  order  to 
protect  the  venture- 
s o m e youngsters 
from  a headlong 
fall  into  space,  with 
a probable  denting 
of  the  floor  below, 
landing  and  gallery 
rails  should  be  at 
least  3 feet  6 inches 
from  the  flooring. 
It  is  even  better  that 
they  be  made  4 feet 
high.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that 
the  stair  rail  fits  and 
is  comfortable  to  the 
hand;  an  awkward 

rail  is  a constant  and  unpleasant  reminder  of  the  one  who  is  responsible  for  it. 

For  the  general  use  of  the  American  household,  stairs  are  best  made  of  wood. 
Marble  may  be  well  enough  for  a public  building,  but  such  are  hard  and  unsym- 
pathetic for  every-day  home  use,  and  of  course  with  them  the  stair  runner  is 
out  of  the  question.  Of  whatever  material  the  stairs  are  made,  it  should  be  con- 
tinued throughout  the  flight;  marble  stairs  with  wooden  landings  are  very 
poor  in  design  and  taste. 

The  staircase,  if  disconnected  from  the  hall  for  private  passage,  should 
have  ample  floor  space  at  the  foot  of  the  flight  to  allow  of  an  uncramped  pas- 
sage between  the  arch  or  screen  which  divides  it  from  the  hall.  Saving  space  in 
this  direction  is  false  economy,  and  there  is  always  a feeling  of  being  crowded. 


Old  stairway  at  Carters  Grove,  Va.  The  broad  hospitality  of  the  Colonial  South  is 

here  suggested 


145 


Halls  and  Stairways 

In  the  furnishing  and  embellishing  of  the  vestibule,  hall  and  staircase,  the 
same  rules  should  be  followed  as  those  which  govern  their  construction.  The 
vestibule  requires  no  furniture  or  embellishment  other  than  perhaps  a very  simple 
seat  and  a medium-sized  mirror.  Of  course  the  usual  door  mat  should  be  consid- 
ered, and  this  should  be  strong  and  firm.  It  is  better  that  it  should  be  let  into 
the  floor  so  that  it  be  well  below  the  door  swing,  and  further,  to  keep  it  from 
sliding  when  used.  Otherwise,  if  neighbour  Jones  is  particularly  strong  in  his 
feet,  you  may  be  obliged  to  nail  it  down,  which  is  awkward. 

A large  rug  of  strong,  subdued  colour  should  cover  the  hall  floor,  leaving  an 
ample  margin  around  it.  If  a pattern  is  used,  it  should  be  simple,  strong,  and  not 
too  contrasting  in  colour.  The  stair  runner  should  be  plain;  if  a border  is 
used,  it  should  be  a very  simple  lateral  stripe.  Any  attempt  at  pattern  in  the 
hall  runner  is  grotesque  when  in  place,  and  disturbing  in  the  extreme.  Most  of 
them  are  designed  with  a pattern  showing  the  want  of  foresight  in  someone, 
whether  it  be  the  manufacturer,  designer  or  consumer. 

The  walls  of  the  hall  are  well  adapted  for  the  hanging  of  tapestries  or  for 
strong,  low-toned  decorations.  If  pictures  are  used,  they  should  be  few  and  of 
good  size;  the  print  has  no  place  in  the  hall.  Statuary  is  perhaps  better  here 
than  in  any  other  of  the  ordinary  rooms; 
it  can  be  set  in  niches  or  on  pedestals, 
although  the  niche  is  preferable.  Often 
the  staircase  landing  offers  an  oppor- 
tunity in  this  direction,  but  it  should 
not  interfere  with  the  passageway. 

The  walls  of  the  staircase  should  be 
fairly  simple;  tapestry  or  wall  decora- 
tions may  be  used,  but,  as  a rule,  the 
picture  is  out  of  place.  The  dado 
should  follow  up  the  stairway  at  the 
height  of  and  conforming  with  the  stair 
rail.  Whatever  the  colour  scheme  of 
the  hall  and  staircase,  it  should  always 
be  neutral  and  not  too  delicate.  This 
colour  scheme  will  wear  the  year 
around,  unchanged.  Do  not  use  too 
bright  colours  for  the  walls,  ceiling  and 
floor  of  hall;  the  rug  and  door  hangings 
are  the  only  things  which  could  be 
warmer  in  tone  than  these,  and  even 
they  but  slightly. 

For  lighting  purposes  a lantern  is  the 
best  medium.  It  is  adapted  equally  well 
to  the  vestibule,  hall  and  staircase.  The 
light,  however,  should  in  most  cases  be 
slightly  subdued,  in  order  to  carry  out  the  general  effect.  Sconces  can  be  used  in  some 
cases  independently,  or  supplementary  to  the  lantern,  provided  the  room  be  large. 


An  Elizabethan  treatment — a distinctive  style  of  wood.  Charles 
Brigham,  architect 


146  The  Country  House 

There  should  be  no  furniture  on  the  stair  landings.  The  tall  clock  is  very 
frequently  placed  here,  but  if  it  interferes  with  the  traffic  it  should  go. 

The  hall  is  no  place  for  stuffed  furniture.  Straight-backed  chairs  and  settles 
are  to  be  preferred,  those  of  the  Elizabethan  period  being  excellent.  If  by  chance 
you  are  tempted  to  put  a rocker  in  your  hall,  hasten  to  cut  it  into  firewood  with  an 
axe;  it  is  much  better  so  than  in  the  hall.  This  room  is  surely  not  the  place 

for  solid  comfort  and 
lounging,  and  such 
furniture  as  embel- 
lishes it  should  im- 
press this  fact 
strongly. 

If  one  has  de- 
signed a house  in 
which  all  the  rooms 
are  in  proper  rela- 
tion to  each  other, 
one  may  feel  quite 
sure  that  such  super- 
human perfection  of 
accomplishment 
cannot  last.  The 
best  that  one  can  do 
is  not  to  lose  con- 
sciousness of  that 
ideal  of  harmony 
and  fitness  which, 
practically,  can  be 
approached  only 
from  afar. 

As  the  construction  of  the  stair  is  more  or  less  intricate,  it  is  not  generally  at- 
tempted by  the  ordinary  carpenter,  unless  in  very  simple  cases  of  straight  runs. 
This  kind  of  work  is  done  by  a specialist— the  “stair-builder.”  The  importance 
of  calculating  for  easy  treads,  landings  and  ample  head  room  has  already  been 
touched  upon.  There  remains,  howTever,  a few  hints  on  the  various  styles  of  stairs. 

I he  straight  run  of  stairs  are  very  well  if  not  used  to  span  a high  story.  If 
very  long,  they  should  have  a landing  in  the  middle  to  obviate  the  possibility  of  one’s 
falling  the  entire  flight.  In  the  case  of  steep  stairs  this  precaution  is  very  neces- 
sary. When  one  gets  started  in  this  direction  there  is  a fair  chance  of  getting 
a bump  for  every  riser  in  the  flight. 

Where  stairs  turn  upon  themselves  they  should  always  be  constructed  with 
a well  at  least  one  step  wide;  a solid  return  makes  an  ugly  job.  Wherever  it  can  be 
avoided  winders  should  not  be  used,  as  they  are  of  necessity  very  steep  near 
their  intersection  with  the  post,  about  which  point  the  stairs  turn.  If  it  be  pos- 
sible, it  is  better  to  put  in  the  square  landing,  the  only  object  in  the  winders 
being  to  save  room  in  reducing  the  run. 


An  old  staircase  at  Alexandria,  Va.  The  Southern  Colonial  is  all  that  it  has  been  painted,  both 

in  song  and  story 


A modern  hall  at  V7illiamstown,  Mass.  A well  managed  design  in  every  way  The  whole  scheme  is  simple,  rich  and  effective,  and  the  wall  paper  seems  a part  of  the  design. 


148 


The  Country  House 


Second  Floor 


Owing  to  the  tendency  toward  the  returned  staircase,  it  is  best  that  the  stairs 
should  be  at  least  3 feet  wide.  In  the  case  of  front  stairs,  3 feet  6 inches  to  4 feet  is 
advisable,  if  the  necessary  room  can  be  obtained.  I he  landing 
or  turn  may  be  even  wider  to  advantage. 

Stairs  are  built  on  wooden  stringers,  generally  made  of 
2-inch  spruce  (see  Fig.  25).  These  stringers  are 
ordinarily  three  in  number,  are  notched  to  receive 
the  raisers  and  treads,  and  are  set  on  an  incline  from 
one  floor  to  another.  Where  the  width  of  the  stairs 
exceeds  3 feet,  four  stringers  should  be 
used.  The  framing  of  the  risers  into  the 
treads,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  is  calcu- 
lated to  allow  for  the  spring  of  the  treads 
between  the  stringpieces,  as  well  as  the 
natural  shrinkage  of  the  risers.  1 he 
treads  should  be  at  least  1 inch  thick; 


T is  stiffer  and  better. 


Fig.  25.  Showing  the  construction 
of  the  upper  run  of  a flight  of  stairs 


Where  the  length  of  the  stringers  exceeds  one-half  the  story,  carriages  should 
be  affixed  to  them  as  reinforcements.  These  are  simply  pieces  nailed  to  the 
stringers  in  such  a manner  as  to  drop  below  them,  thus  making  a stronger 
stringpiece.  Or,  in  other  words,  the  carriage  is  a strip  spliced  to  the  stringer  to 
gain  depth,  and  hence  strength.  The  carriage  is  especially  valuable  when  we 
consider  the  weight  of  much  of  the  furniture  to  be  carted  over  the  stairs.  Stairs 
ordinarily  run  along  the  side  of  the  partition,  and  in  such  cases  the  wall  stringer 
is  fastened  to  it,  hence  the  carriages  are  only  needed  on  the  centre  and  outer 
stringpieces.  The  precautions  to  be  taken  against  fire  have  been  previously  con- 
sidered. As  far  as  the  construction  of  the  stairs  are  concerned,  they  are  merely 
supplementary.  Briefly,  they  consist  in  stops  of  brick  and  mortar  at  intervals  be- 
tween the  stringers,  so  as  to  stop  any  draught  that  might  follow  upward  in  this 
space,  and  also  the  use  of  wire  lathing.  The  stops  thus  used  should  be  sup- 
ported on  strips  of  plank  cut  in  between  the  stringers.  All  stairways  should  be 
lathed  and  plastered  on  the  under  side  of  stringers,  whether  having  a closet  under 
them  or  not. 

While  the  stairs  are  in  process  of  construction  it  is  well  to  keep  a close  watch 
over  them  to  see  that  both  plan  and  construction  are  what  they  should  be.  It  is  far 
easier  to  correct  any  mistake  in  the  plan  before  the  frame  has  been  covered  in, 
and,  with  the  rough  and  temporary  treads  and  rough  framing,  one  can  readily  tell 
whether  any  change  is  necessary  before  this  part  of  the  work  is  carried  further. 


Den  in  the  upper  story  of  a house  at  Overbrook,  Pa.  Very  suggestive  of  the  medieval  hall. 
Wm.  L.  Price,  architect 


CHAPTER  IX 
Living,  and  Other  Rooms 

F THE  evolutions  of  the  various  rooms  of  the  modern  country 
house  from  the  feudal  “hall,”  which  are  numerous  and  vary 
in  different  countries,  it  may  be  said  that  they  arrived  at  the 
same  destination  in  the  course  of  time  only  to  be  shuffled  up 
and  misused  by  the  modern  American.  The  great  trouble 
with  our  traveller  abroad  is  his  tendency  to  copy  blindly  whole 
plans,  and  whatever  strikes  his  fancy  in  the  details,  without 
understanding  their  use  or  meaning.  Hence  the  entirely  unsuitable  houses  in 
which  many  otherwise  rational  folks  are  trying  to  live.  Can  anything  be  more 
ridiculous  than  to  copy  the  elevated  and  railed-in  “royal  bed”  of  the  Queen  of 
France?  Knowing  its  true  intention,  one  would  hesitate  to  do  this,  no  matter 
how  beautiful  the  thing  might  appear.  To  copy  it  would  be  to  get  laughed  at 
for  one’s  pains  by  those  who  know  more  of  the  subject  than  we  do.  1 he  re- 
quirements and  conditions  of  modern  and  ancient  times  are  very  dissimilar. 
When  we  have  begun  to  understand  this  we  have  learned  something  of  vast 
importance  in  the  planning  of  the  modern  home. 

Under  the  head  of  living  rooms  come  the  drawing  room,  library,  smoking  room 
or  “den,”  morning  room  and  reception  room.  Under  gala  rooms,  the  ballroom, 

149 


150 


The  Country  House 


salon  and  music  room.  The  chamber,  boudoir  and  dressing  room  are  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  bedroom  suite.  Let  us  take  up  these  several  rooms  separately, 

as  to  their  purpose, 
treatment,  etc. 

In  France  and 
England  the  draw- 
ing room  was  orig- 
inally the  bedcham- 
ber; later  it  was 
screened  off  from 
the  sleeping  room. 
The  great  publicity 
of  the  hall  naturally 
suggested  a place  of 
retirement,  and  the 
bedchamber,  being 
the  only  other  thing 
available,  was  nat- 
urally used  for  this 
purpose.  In  France 
it  seems  to  have 
been  used  for  state 
visits  and  informal 
affairs,  as  well  as 
for  family  use,  while 
in  England  it  first 
served  as  the  “with- 
drawing room”  for 
the  female  members 
of  the  family. 

The  Italian  two- 
storied  salon  of  the 
seventeenth  century 
became  at  a later 
date  subdivided  into 
two  rooms.  One 
was  used  for  enter- 
tainment and  the 
other  became  the 
family  apartment. 

In  the  average 
American  home  the 
drawing  room  serves 
a twofold  purpose, 
that  of  the  general 

A billiard  room  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  lighted  from  the  top  h\  mg  TOOm  and  a 


Living  hall  at  Bavville,  L.  I.  An  honest  and  simple  treatment  on  English  lines.  Babb. 
Cook  & Willard,  architects 


Living,  and  Other  Rooms 


151 


room  of  entertainment,  and  frequently  the  drawing  room  is  replaced  by  the  sit- 
ting room  and  parlour;  in  which  case  the  parlour  is  used  for  entertainment  and 
the  sitting  room  as 
a family  room.  This 
arrangement  is  a 
good  one,  provided 
there  be  no  library 
to  retire  to  in  case 
all  the  members  of 
the  family  are  not 
engaged  in  the  en- 
tertainment of  the 
caller.  Of  late  years 
it  has  become  the 
custom  to  speak  of 
the  family  room  as 
the  “living  room,” 
which  term  is  surely 
appropriate.  When 
Mrs.  Jones  calls  to 
talk  over  the  matter 
of  church  fairs  or 
the  rummage  sale 
with  the  lady  of  the 
house,  the  man  of 
the  house  is  apt  to 
retire  to  the  kitchen, 
if  no  better  place  be 
provided,  and  hob- 
nob with  the  family 
cat.  1 his  is  rough 
on  the  man.  It  is 
always  better  that 
the  sitting  room  and 
the  parlour  should 
be  connected  by  an 
arch,  across  which 
hangings  can  be 
used,  than  that  one 
should  relax  into  the 
dark,  damp,  ill- 
smelling parlour  of 
youthful  memory. 

The  double  sliding 
door  can  and  should 
be  used,  but  it 


A general  living  room  at  Cohasset.  Mas*!.  An  example  of  good  and  simple  design. 
John  Lavciie,  arcmtect 


Showing  that  it  is  possible  to  construct  musical  instruments  in  good  taste 


152  The  Country  House 

best  that  it  should  also  be  locked  open,  and  only  closed  under  extreme  cases  of 
necessity. 

As  the  true  purpose  of  the  drawing  room  is  one  of  constant  use,  it  should  be 
as  comfortable  as  possible.  The  modern  tendency  is  toward  unsympathetic  stiff- 
ness on  the  one  hand  and  the  museum  on  the  other.  It  is  evident  that  it  should 
be  neither  of  these.  Although  one  is  supposed  to  wipe  one’s  feet  before 
entering  the  drawing  mom,  yet  it  should  suggest  comfort  after  one  gets  there. 
Stiff  and  uncomfortable  furniture  should  be  avoided,  and  in  their  place  should 
be  such  pieces  as  most  appeal  to  home  comfort.  Nor  is  the  drawing  room  a 
place  for  gaudy  demonstration.  Quiet  restfulness  should  be  preserved;  it  should 
be  remembered  that  whatsoever  it  contains  must  be  lived  with  from  day  to  day, 
and  therefore  chosen  very  carefully.  Bric-a-brac  should  be  used  sparingly,  as  it 
has  a tendency  to  accumulate  and  hence  “clutter”  the  room. 

A generous  reading  table,  which  can  also  be  used  for  writing,  makes  a 
fitting  centre  motive  for  the  room.  A bookcase,  even  though  the  house  con- 
tains a library,  adds  much  to  the  home  character  and  will  be  found  a most 
useful  bit  of  furniture.  There  is  nothing  more  cheerful  of  a winter’s  evening 
than  a good  book,  a good  chair,  a good  light,  and  a good  fire  in  the  fireplace  (even 
if  we  be  slaves  of  the  furnace). 

As  regards  furniture,  there  is  one  sort  that  is  always  ugly  no  matter 
where  it  is  used — the  upholsterer’s  delight,  stuffed  inside  and  swelling  out,  like 
a fat  boy  full  of  dried  apples.  If  you  sit  on  it  with  firm  determination  you  will 
rebound  like  a rubber  ball.  It  has  no  lines  or  anatomy,  and  hence  no  claim  to 
dignity,  and  as  such  should  be  avoided.  There  are,  of  course,  good  upholstered 
examples,  but  they  are  not  of  this  sort. 

Modern  American  architecture  has  evolved  the  reception  room;  its  name  sig- 
nifies its  purpose.  Sometimes  it  is  a room  by  itself,  and  sometimes  it  is 
embodied  in  the  hall.  The  former  method  is  the  better,  owing  to  the  privacy  thus 
obtained,  although  the  latter  saves  some  room  and  may  often  be  managed  success- 
fully. When  the  outlay  is  large  enough  and  the  demand  upon  it  is  sufficient, 
the  separate  room  is  convenient  indeed.  One  can  receive  the  formal  short 
call  and  transact  small  business  in  it.  In  size  it  should  be  medium,  and  should  be 
provided  with  a centre  table  and  writing  desk,  besides  comfortable  chairs,  and, 
if  room  permits,  a formal  sofa.  Its  character  should  be  stronger  and  somewhat 
richer  than  the  drawing  room;  not  a lounging  room,  but  comfortable  nevertheless. 

In  these  times  of  the  bound  volume,  which  is  made  to  come  within  the  reach 
of  the  many,  the  library  becomes  almost  a necessity  to  the  book  lover.  About 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  French  had  made  the  library  a feature 
of  the  private  dwelling.  The  cabinet  continued  to  be  the  receptacle  in  which  the 
books  were  kept,  but  the  closed  panelling  had  given  way  to  glass  and  the  bindings 
were  thus  exposed  to  view,  as  is  the  custom  of  to-day.  Once  upon  a time,  when 
the  book  was  a costly  and  rare  article  and  the  binding  more  valuable  and  better 
known  than  the  contents,  as  is  often  true  of  the  modern  volume,  it  was  kept 
under  lock  and  key  and  behind  the  awful  presence  of  the  retainer’s  axe.  Since 
then  the  contents  have  become  more  familiar  and  the  bindings  consequently 
simpler  and  less  expensive,  although  there  are  people  who  fill  their  libraries  with 


Parlour  in  the  style  of  Louis  XV.  and  XVI.  An  excellent  example  of  rich  and  conscientious  design  and  furnishing 


154 


The  Country  House 


binding,  regardless  of  the  contents.  I here  is  nothing  against  the  handsome 
binding,  although  the  simpler  thing  is  the  safer  choice  for  ordinary  use.  Cheap 
and  gaudy  book  designs  are  continually  being  made,  with  no  other  motive  than 
to  catch  the  eye  of  the  public,  and  these  help  to  destroy  the  decorative  quality  as 
well  as  the  quiet  of  a bookcase.  Can  anything  he  more  exasperating  than  trying 
to  read  Emerson  under  the  glare  and  gesticulation  of  a red  binding  embraced  by 
sundry  whirls  of  purple  and  pink,  which  reaches  out  from  its  shelf  and  cannot  be 
quieted  ? 

1 he  best  form  of  bookcase,  either  in  the  movable  or  built-in  tvpe,  is  that 
which  contains  a cupboard  at  the  bottom  for  folios  and  the  like,  with  shelves 
above  enclosed  by  glass  doors.  Of  course  it  is  always  better  to  build  in  the  book- 
case when  possible,  as  it  then  becomes  a part  of  the  decorative  scheme,  and  not 
a rank  outsider  calculated  to  declare  war  on  every  line  and  motive  of  the  room. 
It  is  well,  in  the  case  of  a small  library,  not  to  build  too  much  case  at  the  start, 
although  its  extension  should  be  planned  tor  at  that  time.  Long  rows  of  unfilled 
shelves  detract  greatly  from  the  restfulness  of  the  room  and  give  it  a look  of 
exceeding  bareness.  1 lie  space  designed  for  future  cases  might  be  hung  with 
unobstrusive  hangings. 

In  the  building  of  the  bookcase  it  is  well  that  the  cupboard  at  the  base  be 
projected  beyond  the  line  of  the  book  shelves  above.  I his  gives  extra  room  in  the 
cupboard;  at  the  same  time  books  can  be  laid  on  it  temporarily  while  consulting 
the  shelves;  it  may  be  made  broad  enough  to  sit  on;  or,  if  covered  with  baize  or 
some  other  fabric,  or  even  rubber,  can  be  used  as  a step  to  reach  the  upper  shelves. 
I bis  last,  however,  is  to  be  avoided  if  possible,  not  from  a question  of  looks,  but 
that  it  is  always  better  to  be  able  to  reach  easilv  the  top  shelf  from  the  floor. 
Where  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  however,  it  cannot  be  called  a crime.  1 he  top 
of  the  bookcase  can  be  used  for  busts,  pottery  or  other  art  objects  which  seem  to 
have  a place  m the  room.  1 he  shelves  should  be  of  the  fixed  kind,  grading 
from  the  larger  at  the  bottom  upward.  1 his  is  better  than  the  adjustable 
variety,  inasmuch  as  they  are  always  in  line  and  do  not  destroy  the  symmetry  of 
the  room  as  do  the  others.  A bookcase  should  always  be  protected  by  a glass 
door  to  save  the  contents  from  dust. 

I he  most  practical  bookcase  of  to-day  is  the  sectional  pattern,  in  which  each 
shelf  comes  separately  and  is  complete  in  itself.  Notwithstanding  its  utility  it 
is  a most  ugly  affair  at  the  best.  As  the  old  patterns  on  Colonial  lines  are  but 
a little  less  convenient  and  far  handsomer,  they  are  to  be  preferred  when  the  small 
library  makes  the  detached  bookcase  desirable.  When  all  is  said,  however,  the 
sectional  type  has  a future,  perhaps’  more  promising  than  its  past. 

1 be  decoration  of  the  library  should  be  quiet  and  subservient  to  the  books 
and  shelves,  and  the  furniture  comfortable  and  convenient.  1 he  library  table 
should  be  large  enough  for  all  practical  purposes,  and  that  means  size;  it  is  gen- 
erally much  too  small.  As  this  table  is  used  as  a writing  table,  it  should  not  become 
a catch-all  for  odds  and  ends;  the  ordinary  bric-a-brac  has  no  place  in  the  library. 
It  is  a good  idea  to  have  an  extra  table  for  the  disposal  of  current  periodicals. 
1 hey  can  be  cared  for  in  other  ways,  but  some  consideration  must  be  given  them. 

The  true  smoking  room,  with  its  inviting  divans  and  its  hangings  and 


155 


Living,  and  Other  Rooms 

accessories  of  far-off  Oriental  tradition,  has  gradually  evolved  itself  into  the 
modern  “den.”  There  are  those  to  whom  the  parent  in  all  its  richness  and 
luxurious  ease  appeals  more  strongly  than  its  more  modern  descendant.  The 
Orient  has  given  us  much  that  is  good  in  art,  both  in  fabric  and  in  metal  work; 
the  wonder  is  that  it  has  given  us  so  little  bad. 

The  true  Oriental  smoking  room  is  a delight,  if  it  be  carried  out  with  seme 
thought  as  to  sim- 
plicity and  taste. 

The  most  beautiful 
materials  may  be 
combined  into  a 
most  hideous  whole 
with  an  ease  that  is 
annoying.  Its  en- 
tire feeling  should 
suggest  the  ease  of 
the  reclining  I urk ; 
get  that  effect — in 
any  way,  it  does  not 
matter  h o w — b u t 
get  it.  A bit  of 
Louis  XV.  furniture 
would  kill  the  whole 
arrangement.  A 
Colonial  table  will 
do  the  same  thing. 

It  is  the  one  jarring 
note  in  any  compo- 
sition that  is  so  easy  to  get  and  so  hard  to  avoid.  The  style  of  architectural 
embellishment  could  hardly  be  Gothic;  if  not  candidly  Oriental  it  should  be 
nothing  at  all.  The  room  or  passage  adjoining  this  style  should  not  be  of  a dis- 
tinctly conflicting  treatment,  so  as  to  ruin  the  effect  of  either.  No  arrangement 
that  permits  of  two  such  conflicting  styles  being  seen  at  the  same  time  should  be 
permitted;  it  is  the  very  worst  of  bad  taste. 

A certain  half  effeminate  quality  in  the  Oriental  smoking  room  has  led 
some  moderns  to  accept  the  rough,  bold  treatment  of  the  den  with  satisfaction. 
This  informal  type  is  still  a smoking  room  and  answers  the  same  general  pur- 
pose of  the  Oriental  original.  The  average  American  has  lost,  in  a measure,  perhaps, 
the  old  habit  of  the  smoking  jacket  and  slippers,  much  more  of  the  long  dressing 
gown.  He  prefers  to  sit  with  his  chair  tilted  back  and  his  feet  on  the  table  or 
mantel  and  talk  shop,  rather  than  to  lose  himself  in  the  dreamland  of  Oriental 
laziness.  As  such  things  are  not  allowable  in  the  drawing;  room  he  withdraws  to 
the  den,  where  “solid  comfort”  is  possible. 

As  a general  thing  the  den  is  apt  to  be  the  most  homelike  room  in  the  house. 
There  is  really  no  good  reason  why  this  should  be  so,  but  perhaps  it  may  be 
accounted  for  in  the  fact  that  the  man  is  apt  to  select  furniture  with  a view  to  its 


Living  room  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  showing  an  effective  and  pleasing  treatment  of  the  Japanese. 
Cram,  Wentworth  & Goodhue,  architects 


156  The  Country  House 

use,  and  it  is  thus  more  likely  to  be  comfortable  than  handsome.  The  woman,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  a fairly  good  eye  for  the  beautiful,  with  perhaps  less  of  the 
practical.  Some  of  the  old  furniture  makes  good  furnishings  for  the  den — the 
Windsor  armchair,  the  old  wing  chair,  the  old  English  armchair  with  the  high 
and  slightly  inclined  back,  and  some  models  of  tbe  Italian  chair.  Among  modern 
furniture  the  Morris  chair  is  comfortable,  although  it  is  more  likely  to  be  of 
bad  than  good  design,  and  the  so-called  “Mission,”  some  of  which  is  excellent, 
and  more  of  which  is  unfit  to  put  in  the  stable.  This  last-named  style  has  one 
advantage  in  being  very  strong  and  unlikely  to  fall  apart  during  its  first  intro- 
duction to  the  master  of  the  house;  its  disadvantage  is  its  weight,  which  often 
makes  it  an  awkward  thing  to  move. 

Outside  of  comfortable  chairs  the  den  usually  boasts  of  one  good  table  and 
a writing  desk.  The  general  furnishings  of  the  den  are  stronger  than  those 
used  in  the  rest  of  the  house,  owing  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  likely  to  be  sub- 
jected. Their  selection  depends  largely  on  the  individual,  and  uses  to  which 
it  is  to  be  put.  Unnecessary  bric-a-brac  should  be  carefully  avoided  and  the 
whole  be  kept  simple  and  comfortable.  There  are  those  who  lament  the  intro- 
duction of  the  roll-top  desk  into  the  house.  As  a matter  of  fact,  it  is  not  as  hand- 
some as  most  of  the  old  desks  one  can  mention,  but  it  is  surely  better  for  business 
than  anything  else  we  can  get.  As  the  den  often  serves  the  purpose  of  a sort  of 
home  “office”  it  can  well  be  used  there,  although  it  should  only  enter  the  library 
under  protest,  and  never  any  other  room.  Some  roll-top  desks  are  fairly  cred- 
itable (the  plainer 
being  better),  and 
more  of  them  are  as 
bad  as  the  mass  of 
modern  furniture 
that  we  are  obliged 
to  contend  with. 

The  billiard 
room  is  probably 
the  invention  of  a 
woman,  designed  to 
keep  her  strolling 
spouse  in  the  house 
evenings.  It  is  often 
placed  in  the  attic 
on  account  of  space, 
and  where  one  is 


once  there  one  is 
reluctant  to  descend, 

and  in  consequence  the  guest  chamber  and  nursery  say  things  about  it.  The  best 
place  for  the  billiard  room  is  on  the  ground  floor,  near  the  den  or  smoking  room. 


obliged  to  climb 
flights  of  stairs  to 
get  to  it.  When 


Den”  in  house  at  Salem.  Mass.  A delightful  rendering  by  the  pioneer  designer  of  the 
Colonial  revival.  Arthur  Little,  architect 


Living,  and  Other  Rooms  157 

Not  infrequently  the  den  is  made  an  alcove  opening  from  it,  and  often,  too,  the 
billiard  room  is  really  the  smoking  room.  This  is,  however,  a matter  of  taste. 

In  the  construction  of  the  floor,  deafening  paper  should  be  used — the 
regular  floor  deafening  if  possible — and  the  usual  tracker  laid  around  the  table  to 
deaden  the  sound  may  be  of  considerable  value  in  this  direction.  Care  should 
be  exercised  that 
ample  cue  room  be 
allowed  for  on  all 
sides  of  the  table.  It 
is  rather  awkward 
to  be  obliged  to  ram 
your  guest  in  the 
nose  while  making 
a cross  shot.  The 
best  way  to  manage 
the  seats  is  to  have 
them  on  a raised 
platform  on  both 
sides  of  the  room. 

This  platform 
should  be  one  step 
high  and  from  3 to 
4 feet  wide,  to  ac- 
commodate perma- 
nent seats,  settles  or 
chairs,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  front 
of  this  platform 

should  be  fully  a cue  length  from  the  edge  of  the  table.  "Ihe  windows  should 
come  well  to  the  ceiling  and  have  a good  lighting  area,  as  it  is  usually  in  the 
daytime,  during  bad  weather,  that  the  room  is  most  used. 

With  the  side  seats,  a fireplace  at  one  end  and  the  entrance  through  the  den 
at  the  other,  the  billiard  room  is  about  as  simply  and  conveniently  arranged  as  is 
possible.  Cue  racks  can  be  placed  on  either  side  of  the  entrance  or  by  the  fire- 
place. These  and  other  details  are  readily  understood  by  the  average  player. 

To  our  English  cousins  should  be  given  the  credit  of  the  morning  room.  To 
those  living  much  in  the  open  air  this  rough-and-ready  living  room  or  informal 
drawing  room  is  of  great  value.  It  can  be  used  at  all  times  of  the  day,  by  all  of  the 
family,  and  should  have  direct  connection  with  the  open  air.  It  should  be 
plainly  and  comfortably  furnished  with  such  furnishings  as  a little  dirt  will  not 
harm.  One  is  apt  to  track  mud,  and  this  should  be  considered.  During  wet 
weather  the  morning  room  becomes  almost  indispensable.  Leather  chairs  are 
excellent  owing  to  the  ease  with  which  they  are  cleaned,  and  they  are  usually 
strong  as  well,  which  is  another  advantage,  as  the  morning  room  and  its  contents 
are  apt  to  receive  considerable  hard  usage.  A fireplace  should  be  installed,  if  such 
a thing  be  possible,  owing  to  the  comfort  derived  from  it  during  wet  weather.  It 


Parlour  at  Salem,  Mass.,  Suggestive  of  the  comfortable  times  of  the  old  East  India  traders 


158 


The  Country  House 


should  always  be  in  close  touch  with  the  billiard  room  and  den,  without  infring- 
ing on  other  parts  of  the  house,  so  that  dirt  may  not  be  too  freely  distributed 
through  the  building.  If  its  location  be  within  easy  reach  of  the  dining  room  as 

well,  the  rainy-day 
suite  (viz.,  morning 
room,  dining  room, 
den  and  billiard 
room)  will  be  more 
complete.  Books 
and  papers  are  far 
from  out  of  place 
in  this  room,  as 
are  also  the  card 
table,  large  table 
and  writing  desk  or 
table. 

Although  the 
gala  room  is  but 
little  used  in  the 
ordinary  American 
home,  and  only 
where  a consider- 
able amount  of 
entertaining  makes 
the  ordinary  outlay 
inadequate,  yet  it  is 
best  that  a brief 
consideration  b e 
given  it. 

The  salon,  or 
company  drawing 
room,  is  one  of  the 
subdivisions  of  the 
Italian  salon,  and 
being  a guest  room 
differs  considerably 
from  the  ordinary 
family  drawing 
room.  In  the  first 
place,  it  should  be 
of  good  size  and 
roomy  enough  t o 
accommodate  the 
assembly.  A large 
room  may  be  so 

Billiard  room  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  showing  an  interesting  wall  treatment  badly  planned  that 


Living  room  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  This  room  has  direct  connection  with  the  loggia,  and  is 
more  or  less  of  a morning  room 


159 


Living,  and  Other  Rooms 


it  is  anything  but  roomy.  As  the  scene  of  entertainment  and  festivity,  its  style  and 
character  should  convey  just  such  an  impression  and  no  other.  Being  also  a 
formal  room,  it  should  be  designed  in  a formal  manner,  and  in  a truly  architectural 
style  suited  to  its 
purpose.  Perhaps 
the  best  style  in 
which  the  feeling 
may  be  conveyed  is 
that  of  Louis  XV. 
or  XVI.,  or,  if  one 
prefers,  the  lighter 
forms  of  the  Italian. 

As  the  natural 
treatment  of  the 
Colonial  for  such 
purposes  comes  so 
close  to  the  Italian, 
it  is  hardly  worth 
while  to  note  the 
differences,  although 
they,  of  course, exist. 

The  above  styles 
are  equally  appro- 
priate for  all  gala 

rooms,  and  It  IS  bet-  An  informal  general  living  room  in  a summer  home  at  West  Gouldsboro,  Me. 

ter  that  all  of  the 

gala  suite  be  in  the  same  or  similar  styles  so  as  to  thoroughly  harmonise. 

As  the  salon  is  not  to  be  lived  in,  its  treatment  should  he  light  in  tone  and  per- 
haps somewhat  rigorous  in  execution.  The  wall  can  be  brilliantly  decorated,  as 
the  style  may  suggest,  hut  the  introduction  of  pictures,  prints,  bric-a-brac  and 
books,  which  is  very  much  out  of  place,  should  not  be  attemped.  Bronzes  or 
marbles  can  he  used  with  good  effect,  but  such  objects  should  be  so  disposed 
of  as  to  avoid  any  chance  of  being  overturned.  The  furniture  should  be  light  and 
strong  (thus  easily  moved),  and  in  the  style  of  the  room  itself,  and  it  should  be  so 
placed  as  to  give  ample  passageway  about  the  room.  Such  pieces  as  catch  the  feet 
and  garments  should  he  avoided;  much  damage  is  often  done  to  limbs  and  expen- 
sive gowns,  owing  to  poorly  calculated  furniture  designs. 

The  ceiling  of  the  salon  offers  a beautiful  chance  for  mural  decoration, 
undisturbed  as  it  is  by  wall  hangings  and  heavily  hung  pictures.  The  wall 
surface  should  not  he  encroached  upon  by  the  cabinet  or  other  high  pieces 
of  furniture,  lightness  and  airiness,  which  should  be  striven  for,  being  the 
chief  charm. 

As  has  been  before  stated,  the  salon  is  not  the  place  for  family  gatherings. 
It  is  an  unsatisfactory  substitute  for  the  cheer  of  the  fireside.  Its  only  use  has 
to  do  with  formal  gaiety,  and  hence  it  is  seldom  requisite  in  the  American  country 
house  of  ordinary  pretension. 


Living,  and  Other  Rooms  161 

The  ballroom  has  little  claim  upon  the  country  house,  although  perhaps  more 
than  the  salon.  It  is  only  fair,  however,  to  give  it  some  notice. 

I he  same  general  treatment  should  be  applied  as  to  the  salon;  it  should  by 
all  means  look  like  a ballroom,  and  not  like  a chapel.  It  may  be  designed  to  run 
two  stories,  with  a balcony  or  gallery  at  the  second  story  for  spectators.  It  can  be 
treated  with  a vaulted  ceiling,  frescoes  or  mural  decorations,  but  the  decorations 
should  be  permanent  in  whatever  style  they  be  handled,  as  the  wall  picture  and 
print  have  no  place  here.  As  the  character  of  the  room  is  rather  more  vigorous 
than  that  of  the  salon,  the  introduction  of  niches  containing  marbles,  and  tapestries 
and  trophies  may  add  much  to  the  general  effect,  and  the  swing  and  movement 
of  the  dance,  which  effect  the  treatment  of  the  room  should  carry  out. 

It  is  not  a bad  arrangement  to  have  a platform,  raised  one  step  above  the  floor 
(after  the  manner  suggested  for  the  billiard  room),  on  which  permanent  benches 
or  sofas  can  be  arranged.  This  device  will  obviate  the  possibility  of  stepping 
on  the  toes  of  those  not  dancing,  and  thus  contribute  to  the  general  comfort  of  the 
ball.  1 he  loose  chair  is  not  a very  desirable  bit  of  furniture  in  a ballroom 
owing  to  its  liability  of  being  caught  and  overturned  by  the  swinging  skirt.  It 
may  perhaps  answer  with  the  platform  arrangement,  but  it  is  best  that  it  should 
not  be  sef  on  the  floor. 

Where  it  is  possible,  as  in  the  case  of  the  high  or  two-story  ballroom,  the 
musicians’  stand  should  be  in  a balcony,  clear  of  the  heads  of  the  dancers.  The 
old-fashioned  pulpits  of  both  the  Continent  and  the  Colonial  period,  with  their 
decorative  overhanging  sounding  boards,  offer  excellent  suggestions  for  the  music 
balcony  of  the  ballroom. 

I he  music  room  is  more  closely  linked  to  the  every-day  life  of  the  family  than 
either  the  salon  or  the  ballroom.  Although  distinctly  a gala  room  in  its  primal 
intention,  there  is  no  reason  why  a moderate-sized  music  room  should  not  become 
a part  of  the  living  suite.  Thus  the  music  room  can  be  treated  in  two  ways,  that 
of  the  formal  entertainer  and  that  of  the  home  entertainer.  As  a gala  room  its 
treatment  follows  on  the  lines  of  the  ballroom  as  to  general  style,  but  in  any  case 
it  should  be  devoid  of  heavy  hangings  or  projecting  wall  ornaments  liable  to 
disturb  or  deaden  the  sound  waves.  It  is  also  better  for  the  same  reason  that  the 
ceiling  be  domed  or  vaulted,  rather  than  made  flat.  The  walls  offer  an  excellent 
chance  for  decoration.  They  should  be  light  in  tone,  but  not  as  vigorous  or  high 
in  key  as  those  of  either  the  salon  or  ballroom.  A too  formal  treatment  places  a 
sort  of  restraint  on  the  quiet  and  ease  of  the  room.  Music  suggests  peace,  atten- 
tion and  emotion;  the  formal  is  surely  not  in  accord  with  this. 

1 he  music-room  furniture  should  partake  of  the  general  sense  of  the  room 
itself.  Chairs,  sofas  or  divans  should  be  comfortable  without  being  too  luxurious. 
Upholstered  or  cushioned  furniture  is  preferable  to  wood;  music  suggests  relaxa- 
tion, and  one  cannot  relax  into  a wooden  chair.  If  you  are  sceptical  as  to  this, 
try  it.  The  early  pianos  were  considered  in  the  light  of  furniture,  and,  as  such, 
attention  was  given  to  their  design.  T he  modern  article  is  a disgrace,  generally 
speaking,  as  far  as  looks  are  concerned.  There  is  no  excuse  for  the  manufacturer, 
as  the  public  would  be  more  than  glad  to  get  a decent-looking  instrument,  even 
at  the  expense  of  a slight  sacrifice  in  tone.  These  designs  have  been  so  bad  that 


i62 


The  Country  House 


many  who  can  afford  it  have  had  special  cases  designed  by  able  furniture 
designers  and  architects,  and  naturally  these  have  been  applied  to  the  “grand” 
type.  Within  the  last  few  years  some  of  the  makers  of  upright  pianos  have 
tuined  out  quite  a number  of  very  creditable  designs,  thus  proving  conclusively 

that  the  general 
form  and  the  work- 
ing parts  need  not 
be  changed  to  effect 
this  much-needed 
reform.  The 
“grand,”  however, 
seems  to  hang  just 
where  it  has  been 
for  years — an  ugly, 
clumsy  monstrosity 
— a jarring  note 
wherever  it  goes. 
Let  us  hope  that 
the  day  is  not  far 
distant  when  one 
can  look  upon  the 
piano  as  a decorative 
feature  in  the  home, 
and  not  as  an  eye- 
sore tolerated  only 
for  the  sake  of  the 
sweetness  it  con- 
tains. 

The  bedchamber 
was  the  first  offshoot 
of  the  mediaeval 
hall.  When  the 
female  members  of 
the  household  be- 
came tired  of  “ herd- 
ing” in  the  common 
room,  they  read  the 
riot  act  to  his  lord- 
ship,  and  straight- 
way the  chamber 
was  devised  for 
their  private  use. 
As  we  have  already 
seen,  its  privacy  was 
at  once  appreciated 

Corner  in  library  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.  The  recess  to  the  right  is  occupied  by  the  radiator.  . , i 

Wilson  Eyre,  architect  and  enClOacheQ 


Library  at  Montclair,  N J.,  showing  an  excellent  handling  of  horizontal  lines. 
Frank  E.  Wallis,  architect 


Living,  and  Other  Rooms 


163 


upon.  At  first  it  became  the  drawing  room  and  bedroom  in  common,  which 
again  destroyed  its  privacy,  until  another  concession  was  made,  in  its  subdi- 
vision, by  a screen,  into  two  separate  rooms.  Even  this  arrangement  failed  to 
give  the  room  the  exclusiveness  really  required  of  it,  but  it  was  not  until  later 
that  it  became  dis- 


sleeping 

nothing 


tinctly  a 
room  and 
more. 

Naturally  the 
early  bedchamber, 
being  used  as  a 
family  room,  was 
decorated  most 
elaborately.  T h e 
bed  itself  was  placed 
in  an  alcove,  and 
heavy  and  rich 
hangings  were  used 
in  abundance.  This 
liberal  use  of  drap- 
eries may  have  had 
a practical  side  in 
the  difficulty  of 
heating  the  high- 
studded  rooms  of 
the  time.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  it  is  now 
conceded  that  such 
an  arrangement  is 
anything  but 
healthy,  and  it  is 
also  generally  ad- 
mitted that  such 
fabric  as  is  used  in 
the  sleeping  room 
should  be  of  the 
washable  variety 
rather  than  of  velvet 
or  the  like.  Some 
of  the  Eastern  cot- 
ton-print  goods  are 
excellent  in 
and  stand 
readily. 

In  feudal  days 
people  slept  on  the 


design 

washing 


A simple  chamber  showing  an  excellent,  though  rather  strong  treatment  of  the  walls 
Wm.  and  Walter  Price,  architects 


A chamber  alcove  at  Salem,  Mass. ; one  of  the  first  rendering  of  the  Colonial  revival. 
Arthur  Little,  architect 


164  The  Country  House 

floor,  and  were  glad  of  the  chance.  Later  a cord-strung  frame,  raised  slightly 
from  the  floor,  became  the  ancestor  of  the  modern  bedstead.  After  various  natural 
changes  the  large  four  poster  of  the  Renaissance,  perched  upon  a dais  or  plat- 
form, and  hung  heavy  with  hangings,  shone  forth  in  its  glory— a wonder  of  the 
cabinetmaker’s  and  upholsterer’s  art.  About  the  seventeenth  century,  England 
and  her  American  colonies  climbed  into  bed  by  the  aid  of  a step-ladder.  This 
stilted  type,  however,  gave  way  to  the  more  rational  height  of  the  present  day. 

The  bedroom  suite,  usually  comprising  an  ante-chamber,  chamber,  boudoir, 
dressing  room  and  bathroom,  is  seldom  used  in  this  country.  Unlimited  means 
and  room  alone  make  such  extensive  arrangement  possible.  Where  the  suite 
is  attempted  at  all,  it  usually  comprises  the  chamber,  dressing  room  and  bath. 
That  the  suite  is  not  more  considered  is  perhaps  from  slightly  differing  conditions 
and  customs  rather  than  any  real  quarrel  with  the  arrangement  itself. 

The  bedchamber  is  more  often  badly  than  well  planned.  The  average  is  a 
room  of  fair  size  with  doors  and  windows,  called  a chamber.  If  you  get  the  bed- 
stead placed  in  any  decent  sort  of  shape  you  are  lucky,  and  the  finding  of  a fair 
lodging  for  the  dresser,  bureau,  etc.,  is  nothing  short  of  miraculous.  If  you  can 
then  get  into  bed  without  crawling  over  everything  else  in  the  room  your  triumph 
is  complete.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  planning  of  openings  and  wall  spaces  in 
this  room  should  be  most  carefully  considered,  and  the  disposal  of  the  opening 
with  a view  to  avoid  a draught  across  the  bed  be  deemed  one  of  the  most  important 

features. 

As  to  the  hand- 
ling of  the  chamber 
floors,  it  is  undoubt- 
edly better  that  they 
be  well  covered  with 
some  substantial 
covering;  the  cheer- 
less “cold  floor”  of 
unhappy  memory  is 
not  a thing  one  cares 
to  contemplate. 

Why  is  it  that 
a person  with  so 
much  taste  in  the 
selection  of  the  wall 
covering  for  the 
other  rooms  in  the 
house  falls  so  abso- 
lutely flat  when  it 
comes  to  the  cham- 
ber ? Who  h as  not 

lain  ill  in  bed  and  studied,  puzzled  and  contrived  until  nearly  ready  to  turn  over 
and  expire,  and  all  because  the  crazy,  self-evident  wall  paper  made  things  and 
did  things  most  extraordinary  ? The  walls  of  the  chamber  should  be  extremely 


Living,  and  Other  Rooms  165 

simple — a delicate  background  for  a few  small  pictures  or  prints.  Nothing  elab- 
orate or  disturbing  should  be  tolerated.  You  may  be  luxurious  if  you  wish,  but 
let  that  luxury  be 
quiet  rather  than 
demonstrative.  The 
chamber  is  a place 
to  sleep,  and  as  such 
should  suggest  its 
purpose. 

The  modern 
boudoir,  which 
properly  forms  a 
part  of  the  bedroom 
suite,  holds  the  same 
relation  to  the  mis- 
tress of  the  house 
as  does  the  den  to 
the  master.  It  is 
really  her  private 
sitting  room  or 
office,  and  some- 
times, under  the 
rn 

planning,  is  located 

on  the  first  floor,  off  the  hall  or  drawing  room.  Thus  used,  it  should  contain  a 
desk,  sofa  and  several  comfortable  chairs. 

Following  the  lead  of  its  prototype,  the  boudoir  may  be  decorated  in  a rich 
and  elaborate  manner,  although  there  seems  great  danger  of  overdoing  the  thing. 
The  general  scale  should  be  small  and  delicate,  suggestive  of  feminine  retire- 
ment. Small  prints  and  art  objects  can  well  be  used,  although,  as  in  all  else, 
moderation  should  he  observed.  Japanese  decoration  and  ornaments  are  rather 
suggestive  for  this  room. 

The  dressing  room  fully  defines  its  purpose  in  its  name.  Like  the  boudoir,  it 
should  be  delicate  in  treatment,  and  at  the  same  time  much  simpler.  Its  furni- 
ture, comprising  a dressing  table,  chiffonier,  mirror  and  the  like,  is  best  under- 
stood by  those  who  are  to  use  it,  and  is  in  detail  largely  a matter  of  taste.  Here, 
as  in  all  other  cases  where  furniture  is  to  be  selected,  it  is  advisable  to  procure 
pleasing  designs.  The  old  models,  whether  really  old  or  copies,  are  by  far  the 
safer  investment,  as  most  modern  designs  are  utterly  worthless.  This  is  not  saying 
that  there  are  no  bad  old  designs;  their  proportion  is  far  less,  however,  than  in  the 
modern  effort. 

The  dressing  room  should  have  closet  room  enough  to  accommodate  the 

O b O 

wardrobe.  It  is  awkward  in  the  extreme  to  be  obliged  to  crowd  fabric  which 
has  a tendency  to  crush  into  a space  altogether  too  small  for  it.  Ample  room  in 
this  case  is  worth  having. 


elasticity  of  mode 


An  unusual  “ den  ” at  Osterville,  Mass.  The  rugged  character  of  this  room  is  carried  out 
by  the  shingle-covered  walls 


A winter  dining  room  in  the  style  of  the  Pompeian,  at  Saratoga,  N Y.  Creditable  as  a 
work  of  art,  but  of  doubtful  practical  value 


CHAPTER  X 

Dining  Room  and  Kitchen  and  Their  Relations 

S the  dining  room  of  the  present  day  is  a room  in  which  meals  are 
served,  it  answers  no  double  purpose.  In  the  early  Middle 
Ages  the  nobility  observed  festivities  in  the  hall.  The  feast 
was  served  on  a long,  movable  table,  the  top  of  which  was 
easily  detached  from  the  supports,  and  along  which  was  placed 
lengthy  benches,  easily  relegated  to  obscurity  after  the  end 
of  the  meal.  Thus,  probably,  our  present-day  table  manners 
originated,  although  it  is  doubtless  true  that  their  infancy  partook  more  or  less  of 
infantile  uncertainty  and  freedom.  We  have  not  considered  the  Roman  in  this 
connection,  as  his  views  on  these  things  were  somewhat  different,  and  also  be- 
cause he  is  suspected  of  being  guiltless  of  a close  adherence  to  table  manners  in 
our  sense.  He  of  the  later  Middle  Ages  dined,  or  rather  consumed,  his  meals  in 
the  seclusion  of  his  chamber.  Prior  to  the  setting  aside  of  this  room,  he  must, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  have  eaten  in  the  hall  altogether,  with  the  dogs  and 
the  rest  of  the  family,  as  this  was  substantially  the  whole  house,  and  there  was 
no  alternative  place  unless  it  was  the  roof.  At  a later  period,  when  the  sub- 
division of  rooms  evolved  the  ante-chamber,  it  was  one  of  these  which  served 

166 


The 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen  167 

the  purposes  of  the  dining  room.  Most  of  us  are  glad  that  animals  have  been 
excluded  from  the  dining  room,  but  there  are  still  a few  who,  with  the  still- 
lingering  tendencies  of  feudalism,  continue  the  ancient  practice  from  choice 
rather  than  necessity.  There  is  a time  and  a place  for  everything,  but  it 
would  seem  as  if  that  for  dogs  and  cats  were  not  at  meal  times  and  in  the  plate. 

It  was  not  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  a room 
was  set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  dining,  and  even  then  it  was  used  for  other  things 
as  well.  The  English  realised  early  the  advantages  of  a separate  room,  and  the 
Elizabethan  “dining  parlour”  became  a feature  of  the  sumptuous  planning  of  the 
times.  The  French,  on  the  other  hand,  were  slow  to  adopt  this  new  feature, 
and  for  a considerable  period  continued  serving  meals  in  rooms  whose  chief 
purpose  was  something  entirely  different. 

The  primitive  Colonial  ate  in  the  kitchen,  which  was  often  of  considerable 
size;  he  also  used  it  largely  as  a living  room.  Even  within  the  writer’s  recollection 
this  common  use  of  the  kitchen  was  most  forcibly  exemplified  in  the  paternal 
grandfather,  whose  antipathy  to  the  rest  of  the  rooms  in  the  house  was  most 
marked.  Born  in  1800,  in  the  stern  wilderness  of  Maine,  and  living  in  the  cold 
reality  of  those  practical  times,  he  tolerated  the  dining  room  from  necessity 
only,  and  when  dragged  from  his  chosen  retreat,  the  kitchen,  to  the  family 
“sitting  room,”  evinced  stormy  symptoms  of  restlessness.  In  the  Colonial  house 
of  the  more  elabo- 
rate sort  the  use  of 
the  dining  room  as 
a sitting  room  was 
common. 

It  will  be  clearly 
seen  from  the  fore- 
going that  the  ex- 
clusive dining  room 
is  a comparatively 
new  thing.  The  de- 
mand for  a separate 
room  is  due  to  differ- 
ing conditions  of  liv- 
ing and  of  social 
intercourse.  Largely 
owing  to  the  growth 
and  scope  of  modern 
inventions  there  is 
little  that  the  past 
can  offer  except  in 
the  way  of  orna- 
mental design,  and  perhaps  a few  scattered  details.  This  is  particularly  true  in 
the  case  of  the  kitchen,  which  has  been  revolutionised  to  the  point  af  almost 
complete  dissimilarity. 

Although  the  banquet  hall  is  seldom  used  in  the  modern  house,  and  then  only 


A dining  room  al  Momclair,  N.  J.s  showing  Colonial  influence.  The  end  of  the  room  is 
handled  with  skill.  Frank  E.  Wallis,  architect 


i68 


The  Country  House 


in  cases  of  large  outlays  where  the  owners  entertain  elaborately,  still  it  is  worthy 
of  brief  notice.  Many  of  the  state  dining  rooms  of  the  eighteenth  century  were 

treated  in  the  classic  orders,  with  niches 
distributed  between  the  pilasters  con- 
taining statues.  Often,  too,  one  of  the 
niches  contained  a marble  or  bronze 
fountain.  These  suggestions  are  good, 
but  the  style  should  not  approach  a 
cramped  severity  too  closely. 

If  niches  and  statuary  are  used,  care 
should  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of 
subjects  that  are  appropriate  to  the  uses 
of  the  room.  As  the  chief  aim  is  to  sug- 
gest fulness  and  plenty — fruit,  flowers, 
trophies  and  emblems  of  the  chase — 
the  purity  of  the  clear  pool  or  spring 
and  the  vintage  can  be  suggested  in 
either  flat  mural  decoration,  the  framed 
picture,  or  by  sculpture  in  either  low 
or  high  relief  or  the  round.  Pleasing 
mural  panels  representing  the  seasons 
and  typifying  the  products  of  the  soil 
can  often  be  used  to  advantage.  As  the 
banquet  hall  comes  in  the  same  class 
as  the  ballroom  and  salon,  it  should 
have  certain  characteristics  in  common 
with  them  and  yet  have  individuality  enough  to  define  clearly  its  purpose — the 
feast.  Above  all  things,  do  not  forget  that  the  banquet  hall  is  not  a picture 
gallery,  and  that  a close  examination  of  minute  details  is  hardly  possible  here, 
where  everything  counts  from  the  vantage  point  of  the  table  and  under  an 
artificial  light.  The  family  portrait  has  no  place;  it  is  not  always  inspiring  to 

look  at  on  such  occasions,  especially  if 
the  subject  be  a Puritanical  preacher 
with  his  time-worn  frown  of  disapproval. 

As  regards  the  floor,  tile  is  evidently 
the  best  material,  as  it  is  cleanly  and 
lasting.  With  this  a large  rug  of  smooth 
and  close  weave  should  be  used.  Dra- 
peries should  be  used  sparingly,  as 
their  tendency  to  retain  the  odours  of 
food  is  often  annoying.  Wherever  the 
banquet  hall  is  used  there  should  be  a 
“breakfast  room”  for  family  use.  This 
room  should  be  designed  and  furnished 
. . in  a simple  manner,  so  as  to  suggest  the 

An  old-time  kitchen,  showing  the  brick  oven.  This  example  . 1 . . 00 

has  the  general  living  room  air  retirement  of  home  privacy. 


Dining  room  at  Wenonah,  N.  J.  A well-managed  design  with 
unootrusive  service  door.  Wm.  L.  Price,  architect 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen  169 


The  real  problem  with  which  we  have  to  deal  is  the  dining  room  proper. 
This  is  the  common  form  in  more  than  99  per  cent,  of  all  houses,  from  the 
simple  cottage  to  the  pretentious  dwelling  of  the  millionaire.  They  are  large 
or  small,  according  to  the  family  requirements,  some  being  even  large  enough  to 
accommodate  a considerable  company.  While  the  banquet  hall  is  frequently 
one  story  and  a half  or  two  stories  in  height,  with  often  a vaulted  ceiling,  the  dining 
room  is  but  a single 
story,  or  at  least  is 
treated  as  such. 

It  is  important 
that  the  size  of  all 
dining  rooms  should 
be  considered  in  ref- 
erence to  the  furni- 
ture; one  that  is  too 
small  is  a continual 
source  of  annoyance. 

There  is  such  a 
thing,  however,  as 
getting  it  too  large. 

With  the  extension 
table  pulled  to  its 
full  length,  there 
should  be  ample 
room  to  pass  com- 
pletely around  it, 
back  of  the  diners 
and  free  of  the  wall 
furniture.  Do  not 
try  to  economise  to 
the  extent  of  cramp- 
ing; if  you  do,  the  waiter  or  waitress  is  likely  to  come  to  grief.  Four  feet  is  a 
fair  space  to  allow;  5 is  better.  Never  make  it  less  than  3 feet,  and  that  only 
at  the  ends  of  the  table.  It  is  seldom,  perhaps,  that  the  table  will  be  extended 
to  its  limit,  and  on  such  occasions  the  3-foot  leeway  may  answer. 

The  decorations  should  be  simple  in  character,  not  approaching  the  mag- 
nificence of  the  banquet  hall.  The  same  feeling  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  in  the  choice  of  subjects.  It  has  become  a fad  of  late  years  to  convert 
the  dining  room  into  a museum  for  old  china.  This  is  all  very  well,  and  in  fact 
appropriate,  provided  it  is  not  carried  to  excess.  The  china  cabinet,  buffet  and 
upper  half  of  the  walls  offer  tempting  fields  for  its  disposal.  It  ought  to  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  that  it  should  never  crowd  out  such  pieces  as  are  in  actual 
use;  as  ornamentation  pure  and  simple  it  should  be  relegated  to  the  background. 
It  is  out  of  place  on  the  sideboard,  unless  it  be  calculated  lor  general  or  limited 
use.  One  rather  good  scheme  of  treatment  is  to  panel  the  walls  simply  to  the 
height  of  the  doors,  using  as  a cap  a small  shelf  or  ledge  on  which  platters,  pots, 


A dining  room  at  Bronxville,  N.  Y.  This  room  has  just  enough  in  it  to  make  it  attractive. 
The  wall  covering  is  simple  and  effective 


170  The  Country  House 

brasses  or  coppers  can  be  placed.  This  gives  a fairly  flat  colour  in  the  panelling, 
which  contrasts  well  with  the  broken  colour  and  spotting  of  the  china  and  metal 
ware.  This  arrangement  requires  work  to  keep  it  clean,  which  tact  should  be 
understood  at  the  start.  It  is  best  that  the  ceiling  should  be  fairly  light,  in  order 
that  the  room  may  not  be  too  dingy.  A simple  beaming  is  often  very  effective  in 

this  case,  helping  to 
carry  out  the  lines 
and  colour  of  the 
wainscotting. 

I he  floor  can  be 
either  tile  or  hard- 
wood, in  which  case 
a large  and  not  too 
rough  rug  should  be 
used  under  the  table, 
bile  is  preferable  to 
marble,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  more  lasting  and 
offers  better  possi- 
bilities in  the  way 
of  colour  and  design. 
Never  use  the  fixed 
carpet  in  the  dining 
room;  the  reasons 
for  this  caution  are 
quite  obvious. 

The  buffet  is  built  into  the  wall,  and  is  really  a small  closet  with  glass  doors. 
The  dictionary  calls  it  a sideboard.  Among  architects,  however,  the  former  type 
is  generally  understood.  It  offers  considerable  opportunity  for  a touch  of  pleasing 
and  often  rich  design,  some  of  the  old  Colonial  examples  being  interesting  in  the 
extreme.  In  modern  treatment  they  frequently  have  connection  with  the  service 
through  the  back  of  the  lower  shelf,  which  in  such  cases  is  not  enclosed.  Another 
form  utilises  the  recesses  formed  on  both  sides  of  the  chimney  breast,  thus  making 
a balanced  pair  and  an  interesting  treatment  for  one  side  of  the  room.  If  the 
chimney  contains  a good  fireplace  the  effect  is  all  the  more  pleasing. 

Besides  the  usual  access  to  the  kitchen,  the  dining  room  naturally  has  a con- 
nection with  the  main  part  of  the  house,  d lus  connection,  however,  should  be 
a closable  one,  as  the  odour  of  cooked  food  traverses  the  house  fast  enough  through 
closed  doors  without  any  special  invitation  on  the  part  of  unclosable  openings. 
It  is  possible  in  the  planning  to  separate  the  dining  room,  kitchen  and  service 
from  the  rest  of  the  house  by  a passage  which,  besides  being  ventilated  at  both 
sides,  shall  contain  a radiator  for  winter  use.  I his  last,  besides  keeping  up  the 
temperature,  will  aid  the  ventilation  materially  (see  Fig.  26).  This  same  passage 
should  be  duplicated  between  the  dining  room  and  service  and  the  kitchen.  In 
this  way  the  very  objectionable  and  important  question  of  odour  will  be  settled 
as  effectively  as  possible  without  making  a separate  building. 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen  171 


~n.7z. 


The  English  have  handed  down  to  us  from  the  Elizabethan  and  Georgian 
periods  some  of  the  best  types  of  dining-room  furniture  which  are  to  be  had. 
Some  of  the  high,  straight-backed  chairs  of  the  former  are  most  excellent.  The 
great  stumbling  block  in  modern  dining 
room  furniture  is  the  table.  Tables 
with  fixed  legs  have  their  advantages 
in  steadiness;  those  with  adjustable 
members  are  correspondingly  unsteady. 

The  old  “thousand  leg”  of  the  past 
is  a work  of  art  and  a pleasure  to  the 
eye,  but  utterly  impossible  for  a dining 
table.  There  are  legs  enough  under  a 
table,  as  a usual  thing,  without  adding 
anything  in  the  way  of  wooden  ones, 

.and  the  mix-up  is  often  most  annoying. 

Wherever  the  legs  come  on  the  outside 
edge  of  the  table  they  are  bound  to  be 
in  the  way;  if  a centre  support  be  used, 
the  spread  of  the  legs  or  feet  at  the 
bottom  is  almost  as  bad  as  the  first. 

While  the  central  support  is  a step  in 
the  right  direction,  yet  it  does  not  insure 
rigidity,  and  is  hence  imperfect.  Ugly 
as  the  extension  table  is,  and  despite 
its  legs  and  lack  of 
firmness,  especially 
when  extended,  it  is 
the  best  we  have. 

Why  has  not  some- 
one considered  this 
problem  from  the 
standpoint  of  a fixed 
or  built-in  standard, 
combining  extension 
features  in  such  a 
way  that  the  table 
will  have  good  lines 
whether  closed  or 
extended  ? Such  a 
solution  would  do 
away  with  those  ob- 
stacles which  get  in 
the  way  of  the  feet, 
and  would  be  a boon 

to  the  gastronomic  . . 

. ° The  wainscotting  and  the  ceiling  are  noticeable  and  good.  The  old-time  ancestral  portrait  is, 

World  111  general.  however,  decidedly  out  of  place 


Fig.  26.  Showing  an  isolated  kitchen  and  dining  room 

a Passage  r Radiator  B P.  Butler’s  pantry 

b.  Window  D.R.  Diningroom  H.  Hall 

bo.  Screened  opening  K.  Kitchen  V.  Vestibule 


172  The  Country  House 

It  is  a most  unfortunate  thing  that,  generally  speaking,  the  kitchen  and  its 
relations  to  the  dining  room  and  the  rest  of  the  house  are  not  more  carefully  studied 
than  they  are.  Of  course  there  are  some  few  good  examples,  but  one  that  is 

at  all  complete  is  a 
rarity.  The  early 
Colonial  kitchen  was 
a haphazard  affair, 
frequently  large, 
and,  as  already 
stated,  used  as  a 
dining  room  and  a 
sitting  room  in  ad- 
dition to  its  prime 
purpose. 

I he  kitchen  of 
to-day  presents  a 
unique  and  impor- 
tant problem. 
Where  we  once 
cooked  in  brick 
ovens  or  before  the 
wood  fire,  we  now 
have  carefully  de- 
signed coal  and  gas 
ranges.  These  are 
usually  hideous  in 

design,  but  meritorious  in  their  working.  In  the  planning,  we  should  consider 
the  uses  of  the  kitchen,  what  it  shall  contain  and  where  those  things  are  to  be 
placed.  The  cook,  in  preparing  the  food,  stands  in  certain  places  and  uses 
certain  things,  which  should  be  within  reach  and  thus  govern  the  arrangement. 
Keep  the  kitchen  as  small  as  your  fittings  will  allow  without  cramping.  If  the 
cook  should  be  able  to  stand  in  the  centre  of  the  room  and  by  revolving  on  her 
heels  perforin  her  duties,  both  time,  space  and  the  cook  may  be  saved.  The 
principal  trouble  with  the  average  kitchen  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  an  unlimited 
amount  of  travel  involved;  no  thought  is  apparently  given  to  the  saving  of  steps. 
One  can  hardly  blame  cooks  for  not  staying  long  in  some  kitchens;  the  wonder 
is  that  they  show  such  patience  as  they  do. 

Ventilation  plays  an  important  part  in  kitchen  planning.  This  room  being  a 
generator  of  heat  and  odour,  it  should  have  ample  provision  made  to  take  care 
of  these.  A hood  over  the  range  with  a vent  into  the  chimney  is  an  excellent 
provision  for  the  disposal  of  these.  If  the  kitchen  flue  can  be  made  large  enough 
to  carry  the  ventilating  duct  in  the  form  of  a sheet-iron  pipe,  the  actual  working 
of  the  vent  will  be  much  benefited.  As  some  heat  is  apt  to  find  its  way  to  the 
ceiling  and  above  the  line  of  the  hood,  a second  vent  may  be  made  next  to  the 
ceiling  in  the  chimney  breast,  or  better,  the  flare  of  the  hood  may  be  confined  to 
the  depth  of  the  floor  above,  making  it  practically  out  of  the  room.  Kitchen 


Dining  room  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  The  end  treatment  is  highly  interesting 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen  173 


windows  should  be  carried  well  to  the  ceiling  to  this  end  as  well  as  for  light, 
and  if  they  can  be  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room  so  much  the  better. 
Windows  should  be  higher  from  the  floor  here  than  elsewhere,  so  as  to  be  above 
the  sink  and  tables.  It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  suggest  that  the  usual  hot- 
water  tank  should  not  be  omitted.  It  should  be  of  the  best  and  of  sufficient 
capacity,  and  to  save  floor  space  may  be  of  the  suspended  type. 

It  is  still  the  custom  in  England  to  use  a table  in  the  centre  of  the  room. 
This  is  sometimes  done  in  this  country  and  is  often  necessary,  the  chief  objection 
to  it  being  in  the  fact  that  the  centre  is  usually  the  darkest  spot  in  the  room, 
and,  further,  that  one  has  to  walk  around  it,  a fact  which  makes  it  much  in  the  w^ay 
in  a small  kitchen. 

The  English  and  French  have  retained  one  good  thing  which  we  have  un- 
fortunately discarded — that  of  leaving  the  pots  and  other  kitchen  utensils  exposed 
and  open  to  the  air.  The  advantages  of  this  are  evident:  It  gives  these  articles 

no  chance  to  get  musty  or  sour,  as  the  air  is  an  excellent  purifier.  Furthermore,  if 
they  all  hang  on  the  wall,  they  are  more  easily  found  when  wanted  than  if 
hidden  behind  cupboard  doors.  Of  course  the  cupboard  has  its  place,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  to  put  everything  in  it.  The  objection  will  at  once  be  raised  that 
such  exposure  invites  dust;  true,  but  is  it  not  easily  removed,  and  is  not  its 
cleanliness  far  superior  to  the  half-cleaned  article  that  is  stowed  away  in  the 
cupboard  to  sour?  Of  the  two  evils,  is  not  this  by  far  the  least?  Every  vessel 
should  be  wiped  out  before  using,  after  lying  idle,  even  if  it  be  clean. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  one  writer  that  ranges  vary  in  height,  and  that  some 
of  them  are  often  too 
low  for  the  average 
person  to  bend  over. 

It  is  awkward  to  be 
obliged  to  stoop  or 
to  reach;  such  things 
should  he  con- 
sidered. As  cooks 
come  in  assorted 
sizes,  the  only  way  is 
to  strike  an  average. 

If  the  lady  of  the 
house  has  much  to 
do  with  this  art,  it  is 
she  that  should  he 
“fitted”  to  a stove. 

The  loose  step  to 
overcome  the  diffi- 
culty would  be  so 
much  in  the  way 
as  to  be  almost  as 
bad  as  the  trouble 
itself. 


Dining  room  at  Winchester,  Mass.,  showing  an  excellent  wainscotting  and  china  shelf 


174 


The  Country  House 


A dining  room  on  the  lines  of  the  Elizabethan,  at  Montclair,  N.  J. 

tapestry  effect  add  greatly  to  the  design 


The  leaded  glass  and 


In  connection  with  the  range  one  naturally  thinks  of  the  fuel.  It  is  not 
advisable  to  have  a coal  box  in  the  kitchen.  On  account  of  the  dust  and  dirt 

this  fuel  will  not  bear 
too  much  handling. 
It  is  better  that 
several  scuttles 
should  be  provided 
from  which  the 
contents  can  be  fed 
direct  to  the  stove. 
With  the  wood  it  is 
different.  T here 
should  be  a metal- 
lined  kindling  box, 
placed  perhaps 
under  one  of  the 
fixed  wall  shelves, 
which  can  be  filled 
from  outside  the 
kitchen. 

At  the  present 
day  the  gas  stove 
plays  an  important 
part  in  the  culinary 
outfit.  Where  gas  is 
within  reach  its  in- 
stallation should  not 
be  omitted.  This 
invention  has  many 
advantages,  chiefly 
in  its  saving  of  heat 
and  its  clean  fuel. 
This  makes  it  a 
great  convenience, 
especially  for  the 
summer.  When  not 
in  use  it  consumes 
nothing,  and  is  as 
placid  and  unobtru- 
sive as  an  old  iron 
pot.  The  amount 
of  heat  is  positive 
and  easy  to  regulate. 
In  this  respect  it  is 
the  superior  of  the 
coal  range.  There 


A fine  simple  design  on  Elizabethan  lines,  at  Bayville,  Long  Island.  The  general  details  and 
the  ceiling  show  a careful  study.  Babb,  Cook  & Willard,  architects 


175 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen 

are  perhaps  some  few  things  that  the  latter  will  cook  better,  but  the  gas 
stove  will  bake  “ Boston  beans,”  which  seems  a very  good  test  of  its  efficiency. 

The  best  sink 
is,  of  course,  the 
enamel  or  porcelain 
one;  the  soapstone 
is  a close  second, 
and  for  the  kitchen 
and  its  heavy  work 
the  latter  is  safer. 

Although  the  gal- 
vanised iron  is  sup- 
posed to  be  superior 
to  the  plain  iron, 
there  seems  to  be 
considerable  doubt 
on  that  point.  1 he 
iron  sink,  if  attended 
to  and  oiled  occa- 
sionally, can  be  kept 
in  very  good  order. 

Some  who  have  used 

both  declare  in  favour  of  this  last,  claiming  that  the  galvanised  sink  involves 
constant  care,  owing  to  its  great  tendency  to  spot;  nor  is  it  entirely  rust  proof. 

In  the  setting  of  the  sink,  the  point  where  the  legs  set  on  the  floor  should  be 
at  least  six  inches  behind  the  line  of  the  front  of  the  sink.  This  rule  applies  to 
cases  where  the  cupboard  is  used  underneath  as  well  as  all  stationary  counter 
shelves  (see  Fig.  27).  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious;  the  human  foot  projecting 
beyond  the  line  of  the  leg  would  interfere  were  these  two 
members  made  on  the  same  line. 

Counter  shelves,  sinks  and  the  like  should  be  of  a con- 
venient height  for  those  using  them.  It  is  perhaps  well  that 
all  counter  shelves  should  be  zinc  covered,  particularly 
those  adjacent  to  the  sink.  File  is  even  better  than  zinc 
for  this  purpose  for  the  stationary  type.  A marble  slab 
raised  slightly  above  the  shelf  level  is  often  a convenience 
not  to  be  underestimated,  especially  in  the  pantry,  where  it 
may  be  used  as  a mixing  slab.  Often  the  swinging  shelf  is  of 
advantage;  hut  this  should  only  be  used  where  space  will  not 
allow  a fixed  shelf.  Its  great  objection  lies  in  the  fact  that,  as 
an  emergency  shelf,  it  is  usually  down  when  one  has  both  arms 
full  and  it  is  most  wanted.  That  time  is  when  the  cook  arrives 
from  the  cold  closet  laden  with  the  making  of  a boiled  dinner, 
and  incidentally  two  scuttles  of  coal  and  a pie  pumpkin,  and 
unless  she  is  more  than  commonly  dexterous  with  her  feet,  her  temper  is  apt  to  suffer. 

The  location  of  the  ice  box  is  frequently  overlooked  in  the  general  arrangement. 


Fig.  27.  Section  through  a 
kitchen  sink 


176  The  Country  House 

It  should  not  be  in  the  kitchen,  yet  near  it.  Often  it  can  be  located  in  tbe  pantry. 
In  any  case  it  should  not  back  up  against  the  chimney  or  any  other  hot  place,  and 

if  it  can  be  filled 
from  the  outside,  or 
at  least  without 
going  through  the 
kitchen  or  pantry, 
it  is  a decided  ad- 
vantage. It  makes 
little  difference  as  to 
whether  the  chest  be 
of  the  movable  or 
the  built-in  sort;  it 
is  purely  a matter  of 
taste.  T h e latter 
may  be  planned  to 
suit  any  individual 
whim  of  the  owner. 
1 he  former,  it  may 
be  added,  can  be 
isolated  from  the 
inroads  of  ants  by 
placing  tbe  legs  in 
tins  of  water. 

The  relation  of 
the  cold  closet  to 

the  kitchen  is  also  important.  It  is  best  located  at  the  foot  of  the  cellar  stairs, 
where  it  will  save  as  many  steps  as  possible;  the  help  must  be  considered. 
Often  much  can  be  saved  in  the  way  of  steps  and  the  size  of  the  refrigerator 
(which  will  not  hold  everything  anyway)  by  the  use  of  a cold  box.  1 his  is  not 
advisable  as  a window  ornamentation.  On  the  contrary,  its  best  form  is  in  the 
shape  of  a lift  provided  with  shelves,  lined  with  zinc  and  screened  to  keep  out  the 
roving  freebooters  of  the  insect  kind.  It  is  preferably  located  in  the  pantry  and 

lowered  from  thence  to  the  cold  closet 
or  some  other  specially  built  contriv- 
ance. If  it  seems  desirable  to  con- 
nect it  with  a draught  box,  it  is  best 
that  this  should  come  below  it  so 
that  the  lift  will  not  get  the  dust  (see 
Fig.  28). 

All  the  standing  finish  and  hard- 
ware of  the  kitchen  suite  should  be  as 
simple  as  possible,  that  it  may  be 
cleaned  with  ease.  I he  woodwork  is  best  in  the  natural  finish,  and  not  done 
too  light.  The  walls,  if  of  plaster,  are  easier  to  take  care  of  if  painted; 
they  would  have  to  be  painted  anyway  in  the  end,  as  the  kitchen  accumulates 


Fig.  28.  Section  through  draught  box  and  cooler 

a.  Cooler  b.  Case  c.  Draught  box  d.  Window  e.  Foundation  f.  Floor 


Everything  is  simple  and  to  the  point.  The  two  doors  lead  into  the  pantry  and  the  china 
closet.  The  floor  is  laid  in  composition  blocks 


177 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen 


dirt  rapidly.  The  walls  should  be  of  a medium  tone,  and  the  ceiling,  while 
lighter,  considerably  off  the  white. 

The  ordinary  kitchen  floor  is  laid  in  narrow  strips  of  matched  rift  Georgia 
pine;  this  or  some  other  hard  wood  makes  a good  flooring.  Better  than  this, 
however,  is  the  tile  floor.  The  only  objections  to  it  are  its  non-yielding  qualities, 
which  are  easily  remedied  by  the  use  of  several  ruboer  mats  which  can  be  taken 
up  separately  and  cleaned;  or,  what  is  equally  elfecti\e,  the  cook  can  be  shod 
with  rubber  heels.  The  interlocking  rubber  flooring  is  not  bad  either,  although 
somewhat  inferior  to  the  tile  from  the  standpoint  of  durability.  The  tile  has 
one  advantage  over  all  other  floor  coverings  which  should  recommend  it  for 
kitchen  use— that  of  extreme  cleanliness.  In  fact,  where  the  question  of  ex- 
pense is  not  too  pressing,  it  should  be  used  for  floor,  walls,  and  even  ceilings. 
There  is  nothing  better.  For  the  walls  and  ceilings  glazed  tiles  may  be  used, 
as  they  are  more  easily  cleansed  than  the  unglazed;  they  are  too  slipper}'  lor  the 
floor,  however. 

The  kitchen  or  pantry  dresser,  as  commonly  built,  comprises  a counter 
shelf,  with  a number  of  enclosed  shelves  above  with  glazed  doors.  Below  the 
wide  counter  shelf 
is,  a cupboard  for 
flour  bin,  drawers, 
etc.  T h e accom- 
panying cut  (see 
Fig.  29)  shows  one 
form  of  construc- 
tion. T h e upper 
case  of  shelves  is 
supported  at  the 
ends  by  wooden 
brackets  or  by  pro- 
longations of  the 
sides  of  the  case. 

It  is  well  that  the 
ends  either  butt 
against  the  wall  or 
be  provided  with  a 
guard  formed  of  the 
end  brackets,  t o 
prevent  dishes  from 
taking  a quick  trip 
to  the  floor.  If  the 
width  be  consider- 


able, iron  brackets 


This  shows  the  exposure  of  the  kitchen  utensils,  as  is  the  custom  in  France 


(g)  are  used  in  the 

interval.  The  front,  or  nose  (h),  of  the  counter  shelf  (st)  projects  beyond  the 
cupboard  door  in  the  manner  already  suggested.  The  bin  is  made  to  swing  on 
two  metal  pins  (b),  one  on  either  side,  from  metal  cups  in  the  irons  (k).  This 


The  Country  House 


178 


A light  and  convenient  kitchen — range,  sink  and  dresser  well  placed 


allows  it  to  be  readily  tipped  forward  for  use  (0-0-0),  and  also  admits  of  its 
withdrawal  by  aid  of  tracks  in  the  irons  (k),  so  that  it  can  be  easily  cleansed.  The 

handle  in  front  (c) 
is  to  control  its 
swing;  the  handles 
at  the  side  (n)  to 
remove  it  by.  The 
pins  (b)  are  set  a 
little  to  the  front  of 
the  centre  so  that 
the  bin  shall  have 
a tendency  to  retain 
a normal  upright 
position,  even  with  a 
moderate  inequality 
in  the  distribution 
of  its  contents.  The 
cleat  at  back  (d) 
prevents  the  pin 
from  swinging  too 
far  forward.  The 
strip  at  the  front 
bottom  angle  (f) 
avoids  an  awkward  corner  from  which 
to  remove  the  contents.  The  cover  at 
the  top  (e)  prevents  rodents  from  enter- 
ing, should  they  succeed  in  gnawing 
through  from  the  cellar.  To  com- 
plete this  precaution  the  under  side  of 
the  top  cover  and  outside  of  the  bin 
should  be  covered  with  zinc  or  tin. 

Kitchen  chairs  must  be  strong 
and  simple,  as  they  are  subjected  to 
all  sorts  of  hard  usage.  The  com- 
bination of  chair  and  ladder,  a some- 
what recent  device,  will  be  found  very 
useful  in  more  ways  than  one. 

The  relation  of  the  kitchen  to  the 
rest  of  the  house  is  one  of  great  im- 
portance. The  whole  thing  should  be 
a machine  whose  working  parts  are 
as  near  perfection  as  they  can  be 
made.  Everything  should  be  arranged 
to  save  steps  and  to  avoid  the  spread 
......  J , of  kitchen  odours.  The  first  step 

practical.  The  glazed  doors  make  its  utility  greater  tOWard  the  disposal  of  this  last  lies 


179 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen 

naturally  in  the  ventilation  of  the  kitchen,  through  the  medium  of  the  chimney; 
the  second  in  checking  its  egress  in  any  other  direction,  if  possible,  without 


The  feeling  of  simple  comfort  more  than  makes  up  for  a few  minor  defects. 

The  rug  is  an  effective  feature 

smothering  that  more  than  valuable  worthy,  the 
cook.  To  this  end  there  should  be  at  least  two 
doors  between  the  kitchen  and  the  rest  of  the 
house.  As  a matter  of  general  utility,  the  back 
door  should  be  easy  of  access  and  convenient  to 
the  cellar  and  refrigerator.  The  passage  to  the 
front  door  should  be  short,  without  making  it 
necessary  to  traverse  any  principal  room.  As 
the  back  stairs  make  an  excellent  conductor  for 
the  carrying  of  kitchen  odours  to  other  parts  of 
the  house,  they  should  be  isolated  as  much  as 
possible  without  being  too  much  out  of  the  way. 

In  a locality  where  gas  or  electricity  is  not  to 
be  had,  the  lamp  room  is  a useful  and  valuable 
adjunct  of  the  kitchen  suite,  as  it  confines  filling 
and  cleaning  of  lamps  to  a fixed  place. 

To  illustrate  these  foregoing  relations,  as  well 
as  the  general  kitchen  arrangement,  let  us  take  for  an  example  the  accom- 
panying plan  (see  Fig.  30).  The  kitchen,  which  has  windows  on  either  side, 
is  fitted  with  two  long  counter  shelves,  one  on  each  of  the  outside  walls;  thus 
these  and  the  room  are  well  lighted.  In  size  it  is  12^  feet  from  shelf  to  shelf 
and  12  feet  from  chimney  breast  to  opposite  wall.  The  range  is  of  the  set 


Bin. 


h/oo* 


Fig.  29.  Section  through  kitchen  or  pantry- 
dresser 


a.  Doorjamb 

b.  Pivot  pin 

c.  Front  handle 

d.  Cleat 

e.  Cov  er 


g.  Iron  bracket 

n.  Side  handles 

o.  Inclined  bin 
s.  Sh<  li- 
st, Table  shelf 


i8o 


The  Country  House 


type,  and  the  chimney  at  the  back  is  provided  with  an  air  space  and  vent  to 
reduce  the  temperature  of  the  side  coming  next  the  pantry  and  back  entiy. 
The  gas  range  is  set  in  a recess  (which  should  be  tile  or  zinc  lined),  and  thus 
out  of  the  way.  Some  might  prefer  that 
the  two  ranges  be  together.  I his  could  be 
done  by  shortening  the  counter  shelf  by  the 
entry  door  and  shoving  the  door  toward 

the  outer  wall,  or  by  increasing  the  width  Dining  Zoom 

of  the  kitchen.  There  is  a dresser  (a)  into 


Fig.  30.  Plan  showing  a good  outlay  of  kitchen,  dining  room,  service,  etc. 

a.  Dresser  b.  Slide  c.  Service  box  d.  Cold  box  e.  Bin,  under  f.  Marble  slab  g.  Cooler,  under  h.  I.incn  drawers,  under  k.  Broom  closet 
n.  Wood  box,  under  o.  Wall  space  for  pots  and  |>ans  r.  Coffee  mill  s.  Wood  box,  door 


which  a service  box  (c)  is  built,  connecting  the  kitchen  and  butler’s  pantry. 
This  box,  which  has  an  opening  in  one  side,  revolves  within  a shell  having  an 
opening  in  either  side;  thus  the  food  is  delivered  to  the  butler  without  an  over- 
dose of  the  kitchen  odour  coming  in  after  it  (see  Fig.  31).  A broom  closet  in 
the  corner  is  near  the  range  (k),  and  the  wall  space  on  either  side  of  the  corners 

(0-0-0)  is  available  for  the  hanging  of  pots  and 
pans,  reasonably  handy  to  the  stove.  At  g is  a 
cooling  box  under  the  counter  shelf,  for  pies  and 
the  like,  which  receives  air  from  the  outside,  and 
a case  of  drawers  at  h takes  care  of  the  kitchen 
linen.  I he  wood  box  under  the  shelf  (n)  is 
tilled  from  the  back  entry  through  a door  (s). 

In  the  pantry  there  is  a marble  mixing 
slab  (f)  and  two  flour  bins  (e-e).  I he  ice  box 
is  located  here,  where  it  is  near  both  the  kitchen 
and  the  back  door.  The  fact  that  the  pantry 
opens  into  the  back  hall  allows  of  ventilation 
not  conveniently  obtainable  otherwise.  A cold 
box  (d)  which  drops  to  the  cellar  is  also  provided  for  here. 

Fhe  cellar  stairs  are  easily  accessible  from  the  kitchen,  and  admit  of  a 


The  Dining  Room  and  Kitchen 


181 


window  for  lighting.  The  back  stairs,  which  open  out  of  the  servants’  hall, 
while  convenient  enough,  are  shut  off  from  the  kitchen  by  three  doors,  which 
should  cut  off  some  of  the  onion  and  cabbage  odour  in  its  permeating  ramble. 

The  butler’s  pantry  is  provided  with  a small  cold 
box,  on  the  lift  order,  for  desserts  and  the  like.  1 here 
is  also  a dresser  (a)  above  the  sink,  which  last,  as  is 
the  case  in  the  kitchen,  has  ample  room  on  either  side 
of  it  to  work  with.  The  slide  (b)  allows  of  soiled 
dishes  being  passed  through  from  the  dining  room. 

The  china  closet  is  really  a part  of  the  passage- 
way from  the  butler’s  pantry  to  the  dining  room. 

Beside  the  shelves,  it  is  fitted  with  a case  of 
linen  drawers.  The  dining  room  is  shut  off 
from  the  kitchen 
by  two  doors  be- 
sides the  fly  door 
in  the  china  closet, 
which,  having  no 
striking  piece, 
really  does  not 
count  as  a barrier 
to  odour. 

1 he  front  door 
is  easy  of  access 
from  the  kitchen. 

T h e distance  i s 
short  and  there  are 
three  doors  in  the 
interval.  Inciden- 
tally, the  two  toilets 
are  conveniently 
located. 

We  will  not  suppose  that  this  is  the  only  solution  of  the  problem.  There  are 
others,  some  of  which  may  be  better.  This  one  is  good,  and  seems  to  cover 
the  ground  fairly  well  in  the  solution  of  the  kitchen  and  service  problems. 

The  example  designed  by  Mr.  Dennett,  here  shown,  is  excellent,  and  worthy 
of  careful  study;  it  seems  to  be  the  serious  consideration  of  a serious  problem. 


Kitchen  and  dining-room  suite  designed  by  Hartley  Dennett,  architect 


House  at  Woodmere,  Long  Island,  having  a Germantown  hood.  The  second  story  is  covered  with  wide,  old-fashioned  split  shingles.  Cost  about  $10,000.  Charles  Barton  Keen,  architect 


A fireplace  of  “half-rough”  stone. 


David  K.  Boyd,  architect 


CHAPTER  XI 

Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 

E modern  dwelling  has  evidently  made  a considerable  stride 
forward  since  the  days  of  the  leopard  skin  and  the  cave 
habitation,  but  one  cannot  fail  to  see  that  it  has  lost  something 
as  well.  Perhaps,  after  all,  it  is  some  features  of  the  mode  of 
living  which  are  to  be  regretted  rather  than  the  domestic  shelter 
itself.  Primeval  man  evidently  spent  little  of  his  time  in  his 
cave;  his  natural  surroundings  were  the  open  air  and  the  woods. 
His  descendants,  on  the  contrary,  spend  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  indoors,  in 
overheated  and  unventilated  edifices,  and  at  the  same  time  their  children  are  sent 
to  the  hills  to  sleep  in  the  open  air,  where  the  healing  balm  of  nature  shall 
restore  to  them  the  health  seriously  impaired  under  the  false  conditions  of  the 
modern  home. 

It  will  take  no  long-drawn  argument  to  make  the  individual  of  ordinary 
intelligence  understand  that  the  outdoor  life  is  the  true  life,  and  that  of  the 
dwelling  house  an  artificial  one.  However,  we  have  adopted  the  latter,  and  it  is 
well  for  many  reasons  that  we  have.  At  the  same  time,  the  former  should  not  be 
entirely  lost  sight  of,  and  an  effort  should  be  made  to  remedy  existing  defects. 
1 his  remedy  lies  naturally  in  the  introduction  into  the  latter  of  the  best  features 
of  the  former,  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances.  Naturally,  too,  this 

183 


184 


The  Country  House 


remedy  must  be 
artificial,  and  con- 
sequently the  terms 
“Heating”  and 
“Ventilation”  at 
once  claim  our  at- 
tention. 

Lest  there  be 
some  misunder- 
standing in  regard 
to  the  matter,  it  is 
well  to  state  here 
that  the  natural 
heat  is  that  of  the 
sun.  The  jackass, 
who  seeks  a shelter 
and  sunny  spot  in 
his  enclosure  of  a 
November  day, 
knows  this.  Prob- 
ably, too,  nine  out 
of  every  ten  per- 
sons would  guess 
rightly  the  first 
time,  were  the 
question  put  to 
them  point  blank. 
The  jackass,  poor 
chap,  is,  however, 
more  keenly  alive 
to  the  fact,  it  being 
the  only  heat  he 

Sun  parlour  in  Japanese  house  at  Fall  River,  Mass.  Cram,  Wentworth  & Goodhue,  architects  kllOWS " while  tllC 

ordinary  individ- 
ual, more  fortunate,  perhaps,  knows  more  of  stove  ashes,  registers  and  leaky 
steam  valves. 

We  have  mentioned  the  sun  because  it  is  its  heat  that  must  be  replaced 
artificially  for  a certain  portion  of  the  year,  and,  further,  because  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  the  admission  of  its  rays  through  glass  may  be  found  of 
much  value  for  warming  purposes.  Hence  the  “sun  parlour”  may  perform 
a most  excellent  office  where  the  temperature,  though  slightly  chilly,  is  not 
enough  so  to  warrant  the  use  of  the  heater. 

Your  physician  will  tell  you  not  to  sit  in  a room  with  the  temperature  below 
62°  F.  Do  not,  then,  jump  at  conclusions  and  run  the  glass  up  to  90°  or  more; 
this  is  overheating — a common  fault  in  our  modern  houses.  A comfortable 
heat  is  that  of  70°  F.;  much  warmer  than  this  is  not  conducive  to  good  health. 


i85 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 


A New  England  sun  parlour,  formed  by  screening  in  the  piazza.  The  full  value  of  the 
sun  parlor  is  hardly  appreciated  by  the  majority  of  home-builders.  It  is  a decided 
addition  to  the  country  house  in  a temperate  climate.  E.  A.  P.  Newcomb,  architect 


The  open  fire- 
place and  its  modi- 
fications, the  fire 
frame  and  open 
grate,  are  not  de- 
sirable heaters  for 
a climate  where 
the  temperature 
runs  below  the 
freezing  point. 

They  are  large  con- 
sumers of  fuel  in 
proportion  to  the 
heat  derived  from 
them,  at  least 
three-quarters  of 
that  produced  go- 
ing up  the  chimney. 

They  are,  however, 
excellent  to  remove 

the  chill  of  late  fall  and  early  spring,  and  the  damp  of 
any  of  the  milder  seasons. 

Mr.  Putnam,  in  his  book  “The  Open  Fireplace  in 
All  Ages,”  gives  the  result  of  tests  of  several  styles  of 
“ventilating”  fireplaces  which  have  been  constructed  with 
the  idea  of  saving  some  of  the  lost  heat.  As  the  several 
variations  are  hardly  in  more  than  the  experimental 
stage  at  present,  they  need  not  be  considered  seriously 
until  results  shall  have  proved  their  worth  more  definitely. 

1 he  old  fire  frame,  owing  to  its  radiating  surface,  is 
a better  heater  than  the  ordinary  fireplace,  and  being 
usually  of  good  design,  is  well  worthy  of  consideration. 

As  a heater  the  stove  is  an  improvment  on  the 
fireplace,  and  yet  it  is  a question,  after  all,  if  it  should 
be  considered  as  a means  of  heat  for  the  modern  country 
house.  The  heat  given  off  from  it  rises  in  a vertical 
column,  diminishing  rapidly  in  horizontal  directions. 
T he  old  phrase  of  “hugging  the  stove”  is  not  far  from  the 
truth;  you  “hang”  over  it  until  one  side  is  “done  to  a 
brown,”  and  then  revolve  like  a chicken  on  a spit  to 
favour  some  other  portion  of  your  anatomy  that  is  all 
but  freezing. 

Another  point  is  its  lack  of  beauty.  Although  the 
modern  stove  has  improved  in  utility,  it  has  lost  corre- 
spondingly in  grace  of  line  since  the  days  of  those  charm- 
ing Tyrolese  examples  in  tile.  It  is  true  that  the  applied 


Hanging  vestibule  lantern  in  the 
style  of  the  Renaissance 


1 86 


The  Country  House 


arts  have  recovered  greatly  in  certain  lines  since  the  declining  period  of  “ wooden 
Gothic”  churches,  and  yet  a glance  at  the  ordinary  modern  stove  convinces 

anyone  of  passable 
taste  that  the  dis- 
ordered brain  that 
evolved  it  should 
be  tenderly  re- 
moved from  its  case 
and  thoroughly 
examined.  1 hen, 
too,  it  is  out  of 
place  in  the  room 
and  takes  up  val- 
uable space  as  well. 
Owing  to  its  blis- 
tering heat  at  close 
range,  it  is  shoved 
well  into  the  room, 
so  that  a little  of 
the  paint  and  paper 
may  stay  on  the 
wall,  and  in  doing 
this  furniture  be- 
comes crowded  or 
a portion  of  it  rel- 

A fireplace  in  a genuine  old  Colonial  kitchen  egated  tO  the  3ttlC 

for  the  winter. 

It  it  be  desirable  to  keep  open  all  the  rooms  used  in  summer,  the  majority  must 
have  stoves,  l'his  means  much  care  and  more  fuel,  and  is  reallv  more  expensive 
in  time  and  money  than  running  a furnace. 

Aside  from  the  standpoint  of  artistic  merit  and  floor  space,  the  one  fact 
already  mentioned,  that  of  unequal  heating  qualities,  would  alone  condemn  it. 

The  hist  efforts  to  warm  by  centralising  the  base  of  heat  in  another  enclosure 
from  those  to  be  cared  for  was  through  the  agency  of  the  furnace.  I his  separa- 
tion of  the  heating  agent  from  the  living  rooms  of  the  house  is  the  principle  now 
believed  to  be  the  correct  one,  and,  as  demonstrated  through  the  use  of  steam  and 
hot  water,  this  belief  is  confirmed. 

1 he  principle  of  the  furnace  is  in  the  gathering  of  fresh  outside  air  within  a 
heating  chamber,  and  delivering  it,  warmed,  through  pipes  to  the  rooms  desired. 

1 his  is  called  an  indirect  system — the  source  of  heat  not  being  directly  con- 
nected with  rooms  to  be  heated— and  as  it  delivers  fresh  air  it  is  a partial  venti- 
lating system  as  well.  This  last  is  one  excellent  point  in  favour  of  the  furnace,  and 
yet  we  frequently  find  cases  where  the  air  supply  is  drawn  from  the  cellar  itself. 

1 his  is  bad;  the  furnace  should  always  be  supplied  with  fresh  air  direct  from 
outdoors. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  99  per  cent,  of  the  furnaces  in  use  are  too  small 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting  187 


should 
I foot 


for  the  work  required  of  them.  The  furnace  should  be  20  per  cent,  larger  than 
the  actual  figured  size,  and  heating  power  should  be  carefully  calculated  before  the 
furnace  is  decided  upon. 

The  great  fault  with  the  system  is  the  difficulty  in  driving  the  heated  air  against 
the  wind.  With  this  in  mind  the  allowance  in  size  of  the  furnace,  as  stated  above, 
is  advisable;  also,  the  setting  of  the  heater  somewhat  toward  the  point  of  strong  w ind. 

The  principle  of  the  delivery  of  heat  is  that  hot  air  rises.  Such  being  the 
case,  it  is  hardly  to 
be  wondered  at 
that  in  low  cellars, 
where  the  pipes 
instead  of  being 
“pitched”  are  run 
horizontally,  the 
delivery  is  not 
satisfactory,  fur- 
nace pipes 
be  pitched 
to.  every  10  feet  of 
run,  and  no  flat 
run  should  exceed 
20  feet;  less  if  pos- 
sible. 

It  has  been 
suggested  that  the 
fresh-air  duct  be 
carried  through  the 
building,  so  as  to 
have  two  inlets  and 
thus  avoid  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  hot 
air  reversing  and 
following  out 
through  the  duct. 

This  is  undoubtedly 
a wise  precaution, 
but  in  any  event 
the  duct  should  be 
made  of  galvanised 
iron  to  avoid  leak- 
age. It  is  well  to 
consider,  too,  the 
advisability  of  pro- 
viding for  a supply 
of  cold  air  to  mix 

with  warm  in  such  Old  mantel  in  the  Ladd  House,  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  The  Franklin  stove  is  here  shown 


188  The  Country  House 

a way  that  the  excess  of  heat  may  be  tempered  before  delivery;  thus  the  supply  of 
fresh  air  is  not  cut  off  by  closing  the  register.  The  area  of  the  cold-air  duct 

should  be  about 
that  of  the  sum 
total  of  warm-air 
pipes.  This  is 
slightly  excessive, 
owing  to  the  expan- 
sion of  hot  air,  but 
the  delivery  will  be 
freer  than  if  it  were 
smaller. 

Much  has  been 
said  as  to  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the 
cast  and  wrought- 
iron  furnaces.  It 
is  claimed  that  the 
former,  when  hot, 
is  porous  and  will 
allow  the  escape  of 
noxious  gases;  on 
the  other  hand,  the 
latter  is  said  to 
suffer  by  expansion 
and  contraction  so 
that  the  joints  are 

damaged  to  the  same  end.  If  both  are  properly  made  and  set  up,  there  is 
probably  little  choice  between  them.  The  principal  points  to  observe  in  the 
choice  of  a furnace  are  that  it  should  have  few  joints,  be  simple  in  construction 
and  working,  and  have  a large  amount  of  radiating  surface  in  proportion  to  the 
fire  box. 

Registers  should  not  be  placed  in  the  floor  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it,  as  dust 
falls  into  them  easily,  and  is  discharged  again  with  the  hot  air,  much  to  the 
detriment  of  the  latter.  I hey  are  best  placed  in  the  vertical  wall,  and  usually 
at  a point  just  above  the  baseboard.  As  most  of  the  register  designs  are  painfully 
ugly,  care  should  be  taken  in  their  selection.  There  are  a few  creditable  patterns 
on  the  market,  for  which  we  should- be  thankful. 

1 he  best  location  in  the  room  for  a low  register  or  radiator  is  perhaps 
under  a window,  or,  at  least,  in  the  outer  wall.  This,  however,  offers  seveial 
difficulties  to  the  furnace,  the  chief  of  which  lies  in  the  extra  run  of  flat  pipe, 
which  hinders  effective  delivery. 

Owing  to  the  several  objections  already  stated,  the  furnace  may  be  said 
to  be  a good  heating  agent  for  a house  of  small  area;  the  larger  edifice  requires 
a different  system.  The  furnace  man  will  tell  you  that  two  heaters  can  be 
used,  and  cite  cases  where  even  more  have  been  installed  with  good  results. 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting  189 

We  will  not  deny  this.  Still  one  cannot  but  reflect  that  the  man  who  has 
the  courage  to  tackle  more  than  one  of  these  propositions  has  more  pluck 
than  the  majority 
of  mortals. 

One  register 
(preferably  that  in 
the  hall)  should 
have  the  louver 
slats  removed  so 
that  it  may  always 
be  open.  This  will 
prevent  an  accum- 
ulation of  heat  if 
the  other  registers 
should  be  closed. 

The  heat  duct 
should  never  run 
straight  up  from 
the  furnace;  its  flat 
run  should  extend 
several  feet  beyond 
the  outer  limit  of 
the  heater. 

Heat  ducts 
passing  between 
floors  or  through 
wooden  partitions 

should  have  an  inner  and  outer  pipe  with  an  inch  air  space  between  them.  If 
within  12  feet  or  less  of  the  heater,  asbestos  sheathing  may  well  be  used  in  addition, 
being  carried  to  a distance  of  perhaps  25  feet  from  the  source  of  heat.  1 hey 
should  be  at  least  3 inches  from  studs  and  floor  timbers,  and  the  adjacent 
lathing  should  be  of  metal.  A metal  shield,  suspended  from  the  floor  timbers,  below 
them  and  free  from  the  heater,  is  an  excellent  protection  for  the  woodwork. 

In  steam  and  hot-water  heating  the  heater  is,  as  in  the  case  of  the  furnace, 
centralised,  and  the  steam  or  hot  water  distributed  through  pipes  to  coils  or 
radiators.  1 hese  several  sub-centres  of  heat  distribution  are  placed  in  three 
ways,  which  give  three  different  methods  of  heating.  Radiators  placed  in  the 
rooms  to  be  heated  heat  the  air  already  in  the  rooms;  this  is  called  the  direct  system. 
Coils  of  pipe  placed  in  metal  chambers  under  the  rooms  to  be  heated,  or  nearly  so, 
receive  fresh  air  from  the  outside  and  deliver  it  heated,  through  vertical  ducts  to 
the  rooms  above;  this  is  called  the  indirect  system.  Radiators  placed  in  the 
rooms  to  be  heated  (or  coils  in  recesses  in  the  walls),  receiving  fresh  cold  air 
upon  them,  deliver  the  same  heated  to  the  rooms  in  which  they  are  placed;  this  is 
called  the  direct-indirect  system. 

Direct  radiation  is  at  once  the  cheapest  and  most  common  system.  For 
the  country  house,  however,  it  should  not  be  used  in  the  living  rooms  on 


An  adaptation  from  the  Japanese.  Simple  and  effective,  especially  the  natural-wood  finish. 
Fall  River,  Mass.  Cram,  W entworth  & Goodhue,  architects. 


190 


The  Country  House 


account  of  its  non-ventilating  qualities,  and  also  because  it  has  no  place  in 
the  room,  nor  is  it  up  to  the  present  time  a thing  of  beauty. 

Ordinarily  the  best  place  in  a room  lor  the  direct  radiator  is  under  the 

window,  or,  at  least,  against  the  outer 
wall.  If  placed  against  a blank  wall, 
the  space  above  it  becomes  useless,  as  a 
picture  or  mirror  hung  above  it  is  soon 
seriously  injured. 

It  requires  nearly  twice  the  radiating 
surface  to  heat  with  the  indirect  radiating 
system  that  it  does  to  heat  with  the  direct. 
At  the  same  time  one-half  the  ventilation 
problem  is  accomplished  by  it,  as  it,  like 
the  furnace,  supplies  fresh  air.  Thus  it 
will  at  once  he  seen  that  it  is  the  system 
for  the  living  rooms  of  the  country  house. 
In  the  case  of  a frame  house  it  can  be 
applied  to  the  first  floor  by  delivery 
through  a register  in  the  front  of  a fixed 
seat,  which  should  be  in  the  outer  wall 
(see  Fig.  32).  In  a brick  wall  the  delivery 
flue  can  be  let  into  the  wall.  In  supplying 
heat  to  the  second  story  of  a frame  struc- 
ture the  duct  should  not  be  carried  in  the 
outer  walls,  owing  to  their  coldness. 

In  order  that  the  inflowing  air  may 
be  tempered  to  the  conditions  of  the  weather,  it  is  best  to 
allow  for  the  introduction  of  cold  air  which  shall  mix  with 
the  hot  prior  to  its  delivery  into  the  room  (see  Fig.  32).  As 
shown  in  this  cut,  the  fresh-air  flue  extends  upward  to 
the  seat  and  is  intercepted  by  a damper,  which,  when 
lowered,  diverts  the  supply  through  the  heated  coil  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  flue  and  thence  into  the  room.  Thus 
it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  temperature  of  the  supply  is 
well  under  control. 

The  direct-indirect  radiating  system,  unless  the  radiator 
be  let  into  the  wall,  is  open  to  the  same  objections  of 
disfigurement  as  the  direct  system.  Often  it  can  be  used 
in  a room  that  it  is  desirable  to  ventilate,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  rooms  in  which  special  ventilation  is  not 
desirable.  Its  application  is  best  perhaps  in  a brick  wall 
(see  Fig.  33).  The  air  is  taken  in  from  below  and  passes 
through  the  coil  into  the  room.  By  opening  the  damper 
into  the  cold-air  flue,  the  supply  of  hot  air  is  correspondingly 
closed,  thus  tempering  the  heat.  The  opening  into  the 
room  can  be  either  a full-sized  register  or,  better,  limited 


Fig.  32.  Section  showing  indirect 
system  applied  to  the  first  floor  of  a 
frame  house.  The  heat  is  brought  into 
the  room  under  a fixed  seat 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting  191 


to  the  top  as  shown.  In  Fig.  33  it  comes 
nearer  to  the  indirect  system,  lacking  only 
the  intervening  duct  which  serves  to  mix 
the  cold  and  hot  air  before  delivery  into 
the  room.  This  system  applied  to  the 
wooden  wall  would  force  the  radiator  into 
the  room,  and  the  fresh-air  inlet  would  be 
below  it  in  the  floor. 

Steam  and  hot-water  systems  have 
many  points  of  similarity.  Both  feed 
their  heating  vehicle  through  compara- 
tively small  pipes,  in  which  the  heating 
vehicle,  whether  in  double  or  single  pipes, 
effects  a current  and  returns  to  the  seat  of 
its  generation. 

A brief  synopsis  of  the  various  sys- 
tems of  steam  and  hot  water  may  serve 
to  show  their  several  points  of  similarity 
and  difference. 

In  the  two-pipe  steam  system  the 
flow  main  rises  from  the  boiler  and 
connects  by  small  branches  with  the 
several  radiators,  while  the  return  pipes, 

Connected  With  each  radiator  opposite  the  A glazed*iile  mantel.  For  ordinary  use  the  addition  of  a 
flow  entry,  are  carried  down  independently  sin,p|e  ,ile  shelf-  supported  on  consoles,  would  be  desirable 

to  the  main  horizontal  return  located 

below  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  boiler.  Although  the  independent  return  may 
be  preferable,  it  is  the  practice  in  a tier  of  radiators  to  connect  with  a common 
vertical  return  pipe.  The  objection  to  the  former  method  is  in  the  extra  expense 
of  piping,  and,  in  some  rooms  above  the  first  floor,  the  ungainliness  of  the  added 
piping  in  the  rooms. 

In  the  one-pipe  steam  system  the  mains  are  carried  up  and  make  one 
connection  with  each  radiator,  each  pipe  serving  for  flow  and  return.  In  this  the 
principle  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  higher-temperatured  vehicle  flows  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  horizontal  pipes.  (This  principle  is  explained  in  chapter  12.) 

In  the  overhead  supply  steam  system  the  flow  main  is  carried  upward  to  a 
height  above  the  topmost  radiator,  and  is  connected  with  the  various  heating 
surfaces  in  the  interval  of  its  downward  course.  The  return  pipes  are  independent 
of  this  circuit,  at  least  until  a level  below  that  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  has  been 
reached. 

The  perfect  system  of  the  two-pipe  hot  water  type  is  one  in  which  the  flow 
main  is  carried  upward  to  a point  above  the  radiators,  where  it  enters  the  expan- 
sion tank  at  the  side,  leaving  room  above  for  the  expansion  of  water.  The  return 
is  connected  with  the  bottom  of  the  expansion  tank,  and  it  is  this  return  pipe 
which  serves  to  supply  the  radiators  in  its  passage  to  the  heater.  The  overflow  pipe 
extends  upward  from  the  top  of  the  expansion  tank,  either  through  the  roof  or 


192 


The  Country  House 


into  such  drains  as  may  be  expedient.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that,  as  the  flow 
main  enters  the  expansion  tank  above  the  outlet  into  the  return,  the  tank  is 

really  in  the  latter.  1 herefore,  in  more 
or  less  complicated  systems  the  expan- 
sion tank  is  often  connected  with  an  inde- 
pendent pipe  rising  directly  from  the 
horizontal  return  near  the  heater.  It 
is  important  to  remember,  however,  that 
the  supply  to  radiators  should  be  made, 
as  already  stated,  through  the  return 
pipe,  or  at  least  not  to  connect  with  the 
flow  lower  than  the  point  of  its  turning, 
and  that  the  nearer  the  above  principles 
are  carried  out  the  better  will  be  the 
working  of  the  system. 

I he  one-pipe  hot-water  system  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  single-pipe  steam, 
with  the  difference  that  the  feed  and 
return  are  effected  through  separate 
branches  connecting  the  main  with  the 
radiators. 

In  both  steam  and  hot  water  the 
horizontal  pipes  have  a slight  downward 
pitch  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the 
heating  medium. 

1 he  mains  are  commonly  covered 
with  felt  (often  reinforced  with  asbestos) 
in  their  passage  through  space,  where  it 
is  desired  that  the  heat  of  the  pipes 
shall  not  suffer  from  exterior  cold  or  as  a guard  against  fire.  For  this  latter 
purpose  there  are  several  patent  sheathings  in  use. 

The  size  of  the  mains  decreases  and  increases  in  proportion  to  the  supply  of 
the  heated  vehicle  carried  by  them.  In  distribution  they  are  supposed  to  diminish 
as  each  sub-heater  is  supplied;  and  in  return  they  increase  according  to  the  outflow 
of  the  radiators.  For  instance,  in  low-pressure  steam  the  main  flow  pipe  leaving 
the  boiler  to  supply  i,ooo  square  feet  of  radiating  surface  would  be  3 inches  in 
diameter.  This  would  decrease  through  several  fixed  sizes  to  the  smallest  (if 
inches). 

With  the  steam  boiler  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  should  he  below  the  level  of 
radiators  or  coils,  while  with  hot  water  this  is  important;  therefore  with  a low 
cellar  the  problem  is  easier  with  steam,  provided  indirect  radiation  is  used. 

As  the  low-pressure  steam  radiator  is  reckoned  at  about  210°  F.  and  the  low- 
pressure  hot-water  radiator  at  about  140°  F.,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  radiators  of 
the  former  would  be  much  smaller  than  the  latter  for  the  same  amount  of  wo  rk. 

fhe  hot-water  plant  is  more  expensive  than  steam,  but  it  is  claimed  that  the 
wear  and  tear  is  less  than  in  steam. 


A parlor  mantel  at  Lynn.  Mass.  The  interrupted  pediment 
makes  a good  top  motive,  but  the  mantel  bears  no  relation  to 
the  lines  of  the  room 


193 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 

Steam  requires  more  constant  attention  than  hot  water,  and  is  somewhat  more 
dangerous.  Although  the  danger  from  hre  is  slight  in  the  steam  plant,  yet  care 
should  be  taken  to  protect  woodwork 
near  the  carrying  pipes. 

As  the  temperature  of  steam  radia- 
tors is  higher  than  that  of  hot  water, 
it  is  harder  to  regulate  the  heat  to  mod- 
erate weather. 

Taking  all  things  into  consideration, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  hot 
water  is  the  heating  medium  for  the 
average  country  house. 

In  the  perusal  of  the  various  works 
on  ventilation,  one  is  struck  with  the 
variety  of  principles  and  the  beautiful 
way  in  which  one  authority  disposes 
of  those  of  all  others.  Some  claim 
that  carbonic  acid,  the  poisonous  gas 
given  off  with  the  exhaled  breath,  falls 
to  the  floor  because  of  its  weight,  and 
others  that  it  rises  from  the  fact  of  its 
lightness  or  from  other  reasons.  From 
this  mass  of  varied  information  the  fol- 
lowing principles  are  advanced,  as  being 
those  favoured  by  the  majority  of  the 
best  experts. 

The  number  of  country  houses  that 
have  been  fitted  with  special  arrange- 
ments for  ventilation  is  comparatively  small,  for  while  it  is  now  acknowledged  that 
the  kitchen  should  be  furnished  with  a vent  to  rid  it  of  the  numerous  odours 
indigenous  to  that  room,  yet  the  more  harmful  gases  of  the  living  rooms,  which 
often  cannot  be  detected  by  the  sense  of  smell,  are  allowed  to  pass  unnoticed. 
We  sit  in  a closed  room,  under  conditions  of  excessive  heat,  aud  wonder  whence 
that  pressure  at  the  temple,  that  headache  or  that  sickness. 

Under  the  conditions  of  the  closed  room,  the  limited  supply  of  air  soon  loses 
its  vitality  and  becomes  exhausted  of  its  life-giving  oxygen.  Its  deterioration  is  due, 
then,  to  its  loss  of  the  aforesaid  oxygen  by  respiration  and  by  combustion  from 
heater  and  lights,  and  by  contamination  from  the  exhaled  carbonic-acid  gas.  Is 
it  any  wonder,  then,  that  under  such  conditions  the  starved  and  poisoned  system, 
not  receiving  proper  consideration,  should  be  anything  but  healthy  ? 

In  order  that  the  house  may  be  kept  in  a normal  condition,  it  is  first 
necessary  that  it  should  be  comfortably  warm  and  receive  fresh  air  to  replace  the 
discharge  of  the  foul.  With  the  country  house  these  conditions  are  not  at  all 
difficult.  During  the  mild  or  warm  weather  the  windows  are  open.  Hence,  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  time  the  conditions  are  nearer  to  those  of  the  open  air, 


A parlor  mantel  at  Salem,  Mass.  A delicate  effect  in  white 
and  gold.  Note  especially  the  facing  tile,  fender  and  andirons 


194 


The  Country  House 

and  the  problem  is  simple.  Under  conditions  of  damp  or  rainy  weather  the 
closing  of  the  windows  makes  itself  felt  at  once,  and  it  is  necessary  to  use  a little 
heat  to  dispel  the  moisture  and  supply  a vent  for  the  escape  of  foul  air.  With 
the  heat,  enough  fresh  air  can  be  had  from  the  windows  without  inconvenience. 
In  the  winter,  the  conditions  being  extreme,  it  is  evident  that  some  artificial 
means  must  be  resorted  to  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  desired  results. 

In  the  heating  and  ventilating  of  the  house  it  has  been  considered  that  the  two 
systems  working  together  form  the  cheapest  as  well  as  the  most  effective  solution 
of  the  problem.  Thus,  by  the  use  of  the  indirect  system,  heat  and  fresh  air  are 
at  once  supplied,  and  by  ventilating  into  a common  flue  in  the  chimney,  in  which 
the  heater  and  range  flues  are  carried  up  through  galvanised  iron  pipes,  the  draught 
in  that  direction  is  assured.  In  natural  draught,  where  no  accelerating  heat 
is  used  to  force  the  circulation,  as  in  the  above,  there  is  apt  to  be,  at  times,  in  mild 
weather,  where  internal  and  external  conditions  are  nearly  equal,  some  difficulty  in 
the  working  of  the  flue,  and  for  this  reason  the  forced  draught  is  advisable.  If  the 
heater  and  range  flues  are  not  practical  to  get  at  and  a forced  draught  is  desired,  it 

can  be  effected  by  a small  coil  in  the 
main  outlet  flue. 

One  of  the  best  ventilators  for  the 
country  house  is  the  fireplace,  which 
should  always  remain  open.  For  the 
summer  house  it  is  likewise  capable  of 
furnishing  what  little  heat  would  be 
desired  for  the  season,  and  thus  it 
serves  two  purposes  at  once. 

Ventilation  by  aid  of  the  window 
may  be  effected  in  a manner  to  avoid 
direct  draught,  by  raising  the  lower  sash 
and  inserting  a 5 or  6 inch  board  and 
dropping  the  sash  upon  it.  An  improv- 
ement of  this  simple  method  can  be 
bought  at  a slight  expense,  and  consists 
of  a perforated  board  so  arranged  as  to 
allow  the  indirect  passage  of  air.  By 
aid  of  this  the  circulation  may  be  had  at 
both  the  middle  and  bottom  of  the 
window. 

For  the  country  house  the  best 
location  for  the  inlet  register  is  near 
the  floor  on  the  side  of  the  exposed 
wall;  it  should  of  course  be  set  verti- 
cally. For  winter  the  outlet  should  be 
nearly  opposite,  in  the  wall,  near  the 
floor;  for  summer  the  opening  near  the  ceiling,  capable  of  being  closed  and  opening 
into  the  same  duct,  is  most  effective,  d his  top  duct  will  also  serve  to  reduce  the 
bad  air  from  the  lights  at  the  top  of  the  room,  as,  if  closed  in  the  ordinary  way,  it 


A dressing-room  mantel.  Not  too  formal  ; just  enough  abandon 
in  its  design  to  recommend  it  for  its  place 


195 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 


will  leak  slightly.  In  the  case  of  the  fireplace  being  used  as  the  floor 
duct,  the  top  duct  should  not  be  placed  above  it.  It  may  be  in  another 
inner  wall  or  in  the  centre  of  the  ceiling  (as  the  centrepiece),  but  never  above 
a source  of  heat  or  in  the  outer  wall. 

In  the  above  calculations  we  have 
not  considered  the  direct  radiator,  as 
it  is  best  to  use  it  in  such  rooms  as  it  is 
necessary  to  fit  with  a fresh-air  inlet. 

In  order  that  one  may  form  some  idea 
of  the  necessary  units  to  be  supplied  in  the 
heating  and  ventilating  of  a house,  certain 
principles  and  assumed  conditions  must 
be  borne  in  mind  in  order  that  a basis  of 
rough  calculation  may  be  arrived  at. 

Air,  whether  in  the  room  to  be  heated 
or  introduced  into  it  through  ducts,  is 
warmed  by  an  agent  considerably  higher 
in  temperature  than  that  desired  for 
the  room.  Heated  air  loses  by  radiation 
from  the  walls  of  the  enclosure  into 
which  it  is  introduced.  Hot  air,  rising, 
moves  faster  and  with  less  friction  through 
a vertical  than  through  a horizontal  duct. 

Exposure  to  cold  winds  affects  the  tem- 
perature of  a room,  owing  to  unavoid- 
able leakage  and  contact  of  air  with  cold 
walls.  This  leakage  is  about  equal  to 

the  cubic  contents  of  the  room  per  hou  r.  A good  fireplace  of  tile.  A suggestive  example,  but  too 

Although  the  leading  authorities  differ  much  crowded  by  ,he  flanking  doors’  and  out  of  harmony 

° ..  ° with  surroundings 

considerably,  it  is  generally  considered, 

however,  that  1,800  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour  be  allowed  for  the  use  of 
each  person;  Baldwin  places  it  as  high  as  double  this  amount. 

The  normal  temperature  for  artificial  heat  is  usually  placed  at  70°  F.; 
the  low  external  temperature  for  this  climate  (New  York)  at  zero  F.  For  an 
average  condition  of  walls  and  windows  with  light  on  two  sides,  to  heat  to 
70°  F.  at  zero  weather,  hot  air  should  be  introduced  at  ioo°  F.  Add  10  per  cent, 
to  heating  power  for  exposure  to  prevailing  cold  winds.  A rough  estimate  of  the 
size  of  furnace  pipe  required  to  heat  an  ordinary  room  to  70°  F.,  external 
temperature  at  zero  F.,  may  be  made  by  allowing  1 square  inch  in  sectional  area 
of  pipe  to  each  20  cubic  feet  of  space  to  be  heated. 

Owing  to  the  awkard  obstruction  offered  to  the  passage  of  air  through  the  or- 
dinary register  by  the  perforated  ornamentation,  at  least  one-third  increase  in  area 
should  be  allowed  over  that  of  the  connecting  air-duct.  While  the  velocity  is  de- 
creased in  its  passage  through  this  ornamentation,  the  increased  area  makes  the  total 
discharge  about  equal  to  the  uninterrupted  discharge.  Hence  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  registered-covered  opening  should  not  work  as  well  as  the  free  opening. 


196 


The  Country  House 


The  screens  of  this  unique  bracket  lamp  are  constructed 
so  as  either  to  shade  the  light,  as  in  the  illustration,  or  to 
swing  around  and  leave  the  light  exposed.  It  is  suitable  for 
either  gis  or  electricity 


The  low-pressure  steam  radiator  is  usually  assumed  to  have  a temperature 
of  2io°  F.,  while  in  low-pressure  hot  water  it  is  140°  F.  One  hundred  running 

feet  of  3-inch  pipe  in  a coil  for  indirect 
radiators  contains  about  100  square  feet 
of  radiating  surface.  To  heat  a room  by 
indirect  radiation,  which  necessitates 
ventilation,  requires  nearly  twice  the 
amount  of  radiating  surface  that  is 
necessary  for  indirect  radiation,  which 
has  no  other  change  of  air  but  that  cf 
leakage. 

The  size  of  a steam-heating  boiler 
is  fixed  by  the  amount  of  radiating 
surface  to  be  supplied.  At  20°  F.  a 
square  foot  of  heating  surface  in  the 
boiler  will  be  required  for  each  5 square 
feet  of  radiating  surface;  at  zero  F. 
6 square  feet  are  necessary.  One 
horsepower  is  equal  to  the  supply  of 
heat  for  90  square  feet  or  radiating  surface;  thus  an  11 
horsepower  boiler  is  required  for  1,000  square  feet  of 
radiating  surface. 

Where  warm  air  is  delivered  or  ejected  through  flues,  the 
velocity  increases  with  the  length  of  the  flue  under  normal 
conditions.  We  assume  as  a basis  of  calculation  that,  with 
the  temperature  below  50°  F.,  hot  air  thus  delivered  to  the 
first  floor  has  a velocity  per  second  of  4 feet,  to  the  second 
floor  5 feet,  and  to  the  attic  6 to  7 feet.  In  natural-draught 
ventilation  the  velocity  per  second  of  the  ejected  air  is  6 feet 
from  the  basement,  5 feet  from  the  first  floor,  4 feet  from  the 
second  floor,  and  3 feet  from  the  attic. 

In  making  the  rough  estimate,  the  first  and  second  story 
halls  are  usually  considered  as  one  room. 

The  amount  of  radiating  surface  necessary  for  the 
heating  of  a room  is  that  required  to  supply  the  heat  carried 
out  of  the  room  by  the  escape  of  warm  air  (in  other  words, 
to  heat  the  incoming  cold  air),  plus  that  required  to  make 
good  the  loss  of  heat  sustained  by  the  incoming  air  by 
radiation  from  windows,  doors  and  walls.  For  steam  and 
hot  water  the  following  rules  given  by  Baldwin  are  as  good  and  as  simple  as  any: 
1 o determine  the  amount  of  radiating  surface  necessary  to  supply  the  heat 
carried  out  of  the  room  by  the  escape  of  warm  air,  multiply  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  air  per  hour  by  the  number  of  degrees  F.  at  which  it  is  to  be  heated,  and 
divide  the  product  by  12,500;  the  quotient  is  the  radiating  surface  required  in 
square  feet. 

lo  determine  the  amount  of  radiating  surface  necessary  to  compensate 


Exterior  bracket  lamern 


197 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 

for  the  loss  by  radiation  from  windows,  doors  and  walls,  take  the  difference  in 
temperature  in  degrees  F.  between  the  lowest  outside  temperature  to  be  provided 
for  and  the  temperature  at  which  the  room  is  to  be  kept,  and  divide  it  by  the 
difference  in  degrees  F.  between  the  temperature  of  the  heat  pipes  and  the  temper- 
ature at  which  the  room  is  to  be  kept.  Multiply  the  quotient  thus  obtained  by  the 
number  of  square  feet  of  glass  plus  the  number  of  square  yards  of  external  wall 
surface  in  the  room,  and  the  product  will  be  the  radiating  surface  required  in  square 
feet.  In  this  rule  it  is  supposed  that  the  external  walls  are  of  brick;  if  of  wood, 
they  should  be  allowed  for  according  to  their  air  tightness  and  comparative 
temperature.  For  the  rough  estimate,  however,  the  straight  rule  is  near  enough. 

To  understand  the  application  of  the  above  rules,  suppose  that  we  have 
a room  to  be  heated 
by  indirect  steam; 
that  the  amount  of 
air  to  be  supplied 
per  hour,  including 
ventilation,  is  5,000 
cubic  feet;  that  the 
room  is  to  be  heated 
to  70°  F.  in  zero 
weather;  that  the 
temperature  of  the 
radiators  is  210°  F.; 
that  the  area  of  glass 
is  30  square  feet 
and  the  area  of  the 
external  wall  is  20 
square  yards — then, 
by  the  first  rule  we 

have:  5,000x70  divided  by  12,500  equals  28,  the  number  of  square  feet  of 

radiating  surface  required  to  heat  the  incoming  air  (or  in  the  terms  of  the  rule— 
to  replace  the  escaping  air). 

By  the  second  rule  we  have:  jW  x 30  plus  20  equals  25,  the  number  of 
square  feet  of  radiating  surface  required  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  heat  by 
windows,  doors  and  walls. 

1 hen  the  sum  of  the  results  of  these  two  rules  (28  plus  25  equals  53)  is  the 
total  amount  of  radiating  surface  in  square  feet  required  to  heat  the  proposed 
room  to  the  proper  temperature  under  the  given  conditions. 

As  the  temperature  of  the  heating  surface  of  a furnace  is  between  400°  and 
500°,  1 square  foot  is  usually  taken  as  being  equal  to  6 square  feet  of  steam 
radiator,  or  equal  to  heating  approximately  300  cubic  feet  of  space.  Therefore, 
if  a furnace  be  required  to  do  the  work  as  suggested  in  the  above  example,  it  will 
take  6.63  square  feet  of  radiating  surface  to  perform  the  work.  The  above  rule 
for  the  furnace  may  be  applied  to  the  stove. 


198  The  Country  House 

The  following  table  by  Professor  Carpenter  shows  the  number  of  changes 
per  hour  required  to  supply  one  person  with  30  cubic  feet  per  minute,  or  1,800 
cubic  feet  per  hour: 


Cubic  feet 
space  per  capita 

No.  times  air  is 
changed  per  hour 

Cubic  feet 
space  per  capita 

No.  times  air  is 
changed  per  hour 

Cubic  feet 
space  per  capita 

No.  times  air  is 
changed  per  hour 

100 

18 

400 

4-5 

O 

O 

2.6 

200 

9 

5°° 

3-6 

800 

2.25 

3 00 

6 

600 

3 

goo 

2 

The  net  area  in  square  inches  of  either  the  hot-air  or  ventilating  duct  for 
each  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air,  moving  with  any  given  velocity,  can  be  determined 
from  the  following  table  by  Professor  Carpenter: 


Velocity  in  ft. 

NUMBER 

TIMES  AIR 

IS  CHANGED 

PER  HOUR 

per  second 

I 

2 

3 

4 

s 

6 

8 

IO 

I 

40 

80 

120 

160 

200 

240 

320 

400 

2 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

l60 

200 

3 

i3  3 

26 

40 

53 

67 

80 

107 

133 

4 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

80 

100 

5 

8 

16 

24 

34 

40 

48 

68 

80 

6 

6.7 

1 3 

20 

27 

33 

40 

53 

67 

8 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 

5° 

10 

4 

8 

I 2 

17 

20 

24 

32 

40 

Or,  the  area  of  the  duct  in  square  feet  can  be  determined  by  dividing  the 
cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  by  3,600  times  the  velocity. 

The  following  approximate  rules  from  Baldwin  may  be  found  of  interest: 

Having  the  cubic  feet  of  air  to  pass  through  a building  in  an  hour  (x),  and 
warmed  by  steam  to  ioo°  F.,  then:  The  weight  of  steam  in  pounds  required  to 
warm  same  = x q-  500;  the  weight  in  pounds  of  coal  required  = x -5-  5,000;  the 
square  feet  of  grate  required  = x -5-  60,000;  the  cross-sectional  area  of  chimney 
flue  (provided  that  its  length  be  under  100  feet)  = x -j-  500,000;  the  horsepower 
of  boiler  = x ~ 15,000;  the  number  of  square  feet  of  heating  surface  in  boiler 
= x -j—  1 ,000. 

For  the  sake  of  applying  some  of  the  foregoing  rules,  let  11s  take  the  accom- 
panying plans  of  a small  six-room  house  which  is  to  be  heated  and  ventilated. 

The  house  is  a frame  structure,  with  the  exception  of  the  exterior  walls  of 
the  parlour  and  chamber  (A),  which  have  been  assumed  as  brick  in  order  to  show 
the  problem  under  such  conditions.  The  continuing  of  the  brick  wall  so  as  to 
tie  the  two  chimneys  together  (see  section)  is  not  practically  necessary;  in  fact, 
it  could  just  as  well  be  omitted. 

The  parlour,  dining  room  and'  the  three  chambers  are  fitted  with  fireplaces, 
which  answer  for  the  removal  of  chill  and  as  winter  ventilators.  To  simplify  the 
problem,  the  consideration  of  the  attic  has  been  omitted,  as  has  also  the  location 
of  the  return  pipe  to  the  heater. 

The  heating  medium  is  supposed  to  be  hot  water,  which  supplies  the 
parlour  and  dining  room  by  the  indirect  system,  and  the  chamber  (A)  and 
bathroom  by  the  direct-indirect  system.  Thus  the  three  rooms  to  which  it  is 
most  desirable  to  supply  fresh  air  are  taken  care  of;  the  chamber  (A),  because 
of  its  brick  wall  offering  a chance  to  apply  the  direct-indirect  system,  is  treated 


199 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 


in  this  way.  The  other  rooms,  with  the  exception  of  the  kitchen  and  pantry, 
are  heated  by  direct  radiation,  which,  being  cheaper  than  the  indirect  system, 
can  well  be  taken  advantage  of  here.  The  kitchen  depends  on  the  range,  the 
cellar  on  the  heater,  while  the  pantry  naturally  has  no  heat. 


Plans  and  section  showing  the  ventilating  and  heating  of  a small  house. 


H — heater,  V — vent,  F — flue,  and  R — radiator  and  register 


200  The  Country  House 

When  possible,  the  radiators  and  inlets  have  been  placed  next  the  outer 
walls,  and  under  windows  if  possible.  In  the  dining  room  it  seems  advisable 
that  the  inlet  duct  should  enter  through  the  pantry,  thus  affording  an  easy 

solution  of  the  vertical  register  and 
raising  the  low  temperature  of  the  room 
through  which  it  passes.  The  halls  have 
been  treated  as  one  room  and  the 
radiator  placed  on  the  floor,  as  the  hot 
air  in  its  passage  up  through  the  stair- 
way is  naturally  forced  toward  the 
outer  wall.  1 he  vestibule  has  been 
provided  with  a radiator  in  order  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  leakage 
around  the  inner  door  into  the  hall. 
The  bathroom  radiator  has  been  placed 
in  the  northwest  corner  as  being  the 
best  location. 

Inlets  for  fresh  air  have  been  pro- 
vided for  in  the  four  rooms  already 
mentioned  through  the  medium  of  the 
heater,  and  in  addition  to  these  it  is 
advisable  to  provide  for  a fresh-air 
inlet  in  the  kitchen.  That  this  may 
be  tempered  from  the  extreme  cold  of 
the  outer  air,  it  is  passed  over  a small 
coil  and  brought  into  the  room  about  7'  6"  above  the  floor;  the  coils  are  sufficient 
to  produce  a temperature  of  30°  F.  in  zero  weather;  this  may  be  reduced  if  it 
be  seen  fit.  I he  fresh-air  supply  for  chambers  B and  C is  admitted  through  the 
windows,  as  such  can  be  readily  done  by  using  the  window  board  previously  men- 
tioned. Fresh  air  for  the  hall  is  supposed  to  be  supplied  by  leakage  in  cold 
weather.  The  fresh  air  supplied  to  the  coils  comes  directly  to  them  from  the 
adjacent  cellar  windows;  if  a more  extensive  indirect  system  be  used,  this  supply 
would  be  brought  into  the  cellar  through  large  ducts  opening  on  either  side,  and 
following  under  the  cellar  bottom  to  supply  the  individual  coils. 

The  vent  outlets  are  through  the  fireplaces,  as  previously  stated,  and  by  top 
ducts,  all  leading  to  a large  flue  in  the  rear  chimney,  through  which  the  range  and 
heater  flues,  made  of  galvanised  iron,  are  passed.  This  forces  a draught,  and  it  is 
probable  that  one  or  the  other  flue  will  be  hot  for  a considerable  part  of  the  year. 

The  kitchen  vent  is  near  the  ceiling  and  the  range,  and  a vent  has  been  pro- 
vided for  in  each  chimney  in  the  cellar.  The  top  vents  in  parlour  and  dining  room 
are  through  perforated  centrepieces  above  the  gas  jets.  Being  used  mostly  in 
summer,  they  will  carry  off  heat  from  the  lights,  and  such  air  as  is  injured 
by  combustion,  as  well  as  the  other  impurities.  The  vents  to  chambers  A and 
B are  placed  on  the  under  side  of  the  arches,  opening  into  the  hall.  The  hall 
vent  is  on  the  second  story,  and  is  provided  with  an  outlet  at  the  top  and  bottom, 
the  top  outlet  being  arranged  so  that  it  may  be  closed  in  winter. 


Hanging  electrolier,  composed  of  a painted  wood  figure-head 
motive  and  antlers 


201 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 

With  the  above  no  calculation  has  been  made  in  connection  with  allowances 
for  combustion  of  air  by  lights.  One  jet  in  a room  is  hardly  worth  considering, 
but  in  the  case  of  a four  jet  light  it  may  be  well  worth  the  while. 

Following  is  the  rough  table  of  calculations  for  heating  and  ventilating  the 
small  house  shown  in  plans: 

The  conditions  assumed  are  as  follows,  viz.:  Hot  water  at  140°  F., 

external  temperature  at  zero  F.,  desired  temperature  at  70°  F.,  each  person 
allowed  1,800  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour,  basis  of  brick  walls  (allow  for  wood  if 
desirable),  cold  winds  from  the  north,  hot-water  heat,  indirect  for  parlour  and 
dining  room,  direct-indirect  for  chamber  and  bath,  and  direct  for  rest  of  house. 
Natural  draught,  as  such  basis  will  cover  the  conditions  of  forced  draught. 


Cubic  feet 

Sq.  ft.  of  glass 

Sq.  yds.  of  Ext. 
Wall 

Persons 

Sq.  ft.  of  rad. 
surtace  to  heat  air 

Sq.  ft.  of  rad. 
surface  to  make 
up  for  loss  of  heat 

Total  sq.  ft.  of 
radiating  surface 

Size  of  heat  duct 
in  sq.  in. 

Size  of  vent  duct 
in  sq.  in. 

Size  of  fresh-air 
duct  in  sq.  in. 

Allowances  made 

Hall 

i,99° 

50 

60 

1 1. 1 

I IO 

1 2 1 . 1 

19.9 

North  exposure 

Vestibule 

470 

80 

34 

2.6 

64 

66.6 

North  exposure 

Parlour 

C740 

78 

92 

3 

30.2 

170 

200.2 

43-2 

43-2 

N.  W.  window 

Dining  room 

1,790 

60 

24 

3 

30.2 

94 

124.2 

44 

44 

Al’wed  for  pan- 

try  wall,  10 

sq.  yds. 

Pantry 

627 

5-4 

No  heat 

Kitchen 

i,3°o 

i-5 

3-3 

21.6 

10, 

to  enter 

1,400  cu.  ft. 

at  30°  F. 

Heated  by  range 

Chamber  A 

1,600 

65 

55 

2 

20.1 

120 

1 40. 1 

25.6 

40 

Direct-indirect 

heat 

Chamber  B 

1,600 

5° 

26 

2 

20.1 

76 

96.1 

32 

Dressing  room 

425 

12 

38 

I 

2-3 

50 

52-3 

8 

Vent  through 

chamber  B 

Chamber  C 

1,070 

30 

52 

I 

10 

82 

92 

20 

North  exposure 

Bath 

480 

15 

40 

1 at 

5-6 

55 

60.6 

13 

8 

Direct-indirect 

1,000 

heat 

Cellar 

7,000 

cu.ft. 

47 

Heated  by  heat- 

(2  vents) 

er 



95  F2 

278.9 

The  above  system  of  heating  and  ventilating  could  be  installed  for  about  $650. 


The  lighting  of  the  country  house,  which  offers  such  delightful  chances  for 
the  display  of  taste,  is  usually  slighted.  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  not  enough 
light  is  provided,  but  that  the  choice  of  it,  as  adapted  to  various  uses,  is  hardly 
ever  considered.  Every  room  receives  the  same  glaring  treatment — a flood  of  light 
calculated  to  destroy  the  effect  of  the  interior  and  everything  it  contains. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  always  desirable,  in  fact  it  is  generally 
better  not,  to  have  a bright  light  in  the  home.  There  are  cases  when,  as  in 
reading,  sewing  or  cleverly  locating  a fishbone,  the  light  should  be  powerful 
enough  to  answer  the  purpose,  but  on  the  other  hand  every  opportunity  should  be 
taken  to  subdue  the  light  when  not  actually  needed  at  full  power,  so  that  the 


202 


The  Country  House 


over-tired  eyes  of  present-day  existence  may  be  favoured  as  much  as  possible. 
Besides  this,  the  effect  of  a room  and  its  contents  under  conditions  of  subdued 
light  is  far  superior  to  the  other  extreme. 

For  houses  in  districts  not  supplied  with  gas  or  electricity,  the  lamp  is  the 
usual  medium  used.  This  can  well  be  replaced  by  the  candle  in  many  cases,  as  at 
the  dinner  table,  where  ordinarily  it  is  excellent.  It  is  a beautiful  light,  and  soft 
for  the  eyes,  its  principal  objection  being  in  the  constant  care  it  requires.  A 
candle  is  now  made  with  a hollow  core  which  receives  the  melted  wax,  thus 
removing  the  objection  so  many  may  at  once  advance.  Several  varieties  of 
branch  candlesticks  can  be  procured,  notably  the  seven-branched  Jewish  pattern, 
which,  if  well  reproduced,  is  excellent. 

The  lamp,  even  if  desired  to  give  considerable  light,  should  be  covered  by  a 
shade  opaque  enough  to  subdue  as  much  of  the  room  as  is  practical.  The  use 
of  stained  glass  for  shades  has  given  some  very  beautiful  results.  Whatever 
shade  be  used  on  a light  it  should  not  be  combustible;  ballet  skirts  are  not  appro- 
priate, and,  even  if  used  artistically,  are  too  dangerous  to  be  risked.  It  is  a 
question  as  to  whether  the  increased  power  of  the  oil  light  is  a step  in  the  right 
direction.  There  certainly  is  a limit  to  its  usefulness,  and  it  is  possible,  too,  that 
that  limit  may  have  been  exceeded. 

There  are  those  who  denounce  gas  and  electricity  for  the  country  house,  but 
this  seems  too  sweeping  a condemnation.  Of  the  two,  gas,  though  the  weaker 

light,  is  harder  to  control  artistically. 
With  the  mantle  light  of  lower  power, 
and  the  ground  and  perhaps  tinted 
chimney,  it  is  possible  to  get  some  fairly 
decent  results,  although  for  the  overhead 
light  a semi-opaque  shield  should  be 
placed  at  the  bottom  to  protect  the  room 
from  light  passing  through  below  the 
chimney.  Electric-lighting  appliances  for 
gas  are  useful  and  labour-saving  aux- 
iliaries, and,  being  run  by  a battery, 
their  expense  is  practically  nothing.  Only 
the  best  insulated  copper  wire  should 
be  used  for  wiring. 

It  is  by  all  means  advisable  to  pipe 
and  wire  a house  for  gas  and  electricity, 
even  if  there  be  but  a passing  possibility 
of  ever  using  it.  In  some  remote  local- 
ities the  latter  is  more  likely  to  come 
than  the  former. 

The  electric  light,  although  quite 
powerful  and  glaring,  is  readily  sub- 
dued. Using  a low-power  lamp  with 
an  enclosing  bulb  of  fairly  thick  semi- 
a hanging  electric  lantern  opaque  glass,  which  can  be  tinted  if 


203 


Heating,  Ventilation  and  Lighting 


Electric  sconces  in  the  style  of  the  Renaissance 


desired,  some  excel- 
lent results  are  ob- 
tainable. Some  of 
the  flower  treat- 
ments now  designed 
are  very  artistic. 

Perhaps  next  to 
the  candle  this  light 
is  the  most  pleasing, 
and  it  surely  offers 
more  variety  than 
does  thatlightof  old- 
en times.  Owing  to 
the  fact  of  its  range 
from  great  brilliancy 
to  extreme  softness, 
it  is  perhaps  the  best 
all-round  light  we 
have.  It  is  safe, 
too,  provided  it  is 
properly  insulated. 

In  cases  of  gas  and  electricity,  where  it  is  practical  it  is  better  that  the  lighting 
be  done  by  both  the  subdued  and  fairly  bright  lights.  For  instance,  a wall  sconce 
could  have  two  subdued  and  one  bright  branch,  or  the  chandelier  four  subdued  and 
two  bright  jets.  In  this  way  the  room  can  be  lighted  for  such  purposes  as  may 
be  desired. 

Lights  for  reading  should  be  low,  ordinarily  on  a table.  Gas  or  electricity  in 
the  dining  room  should  be  installed  in  a chandelier,  which  is  often  used  in  the 
parlour  as  well. 

For  all  purposes  of  entertainment  and  general  lighting  (barring  the  dining  room) 
the  wall  light  is  the  best  and  most  effective.  Its  distribution  of  light  is  better  than 
from  a central  source,  although  in  a long  room  several  hanging  lanterns  may  effect  a 
similar  result.  For  the  wall  light  can  be  used  the  sconce  or  bracket  of  olden  times, 
which  is  reproduced  and  adapted  to  both  the  candle  and  the  electric  light. 

In  the  case  of  lanterns,  some  of  the  Japanese  examples  are  excellent  in  design 
and  variety  of  patterns,  1 hey  are  lit  by  candles,  and  are  reasonably  safe  as 
regards  fire. 

For  the  hall  and  vestibule  the  lantern  is  generally  used,  and  for  the  billiard 
room  a drop  light  of  sufficient  power  is  demanded  by  the  conditions. 

In  the  other  rooms  of  the  house  where  the  single  jet  is  used,  as  in  the  chambers, 
bath  and  kitchen,  its  position  should  be  carefully  considered  in  reference  to  the  work 
required  of  it.  In  the  chamber  and  bath  the  mirror  is  to  be  lit,  and  the  wall  bracket 
is  best  for  this  purpose.  In  the  kitchen  the  top  light  or  one  or  more  side  lights 
can  be  adopted,  as  seen  fit.  d he  bottom  and  top  of  stairways  should  be  well  lighted; 
nothing  can  be  saved  by  neglecting  this  measure  of  precaution.  It  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind,  in  locating  fixed  lights,  that  their  position  should  be  such,  if  possible,  that 


204  The  Country  House 

the  curtain  picture  shall  not  occur.  This  is  a great  source  of  annoyance 
to  the  occupants  of  the  house,  and  destroys  its  privacy  to  a great  degree. 

For  gas  light- 
ing it  is  important 
that  the  following 
points  be  observed: 
All  pipes  to  be  con- 
nected with  red  lead, 
capped  and  proven 
by  careful  test  to  be 
tight,  before  they  are 
covered  up.  Pipes 
to  be  thoroughly 
secured  with  iron 
devices  used  for  this 
purpose.  All  centre 
pipes  shall  be  se- 
cured to  a continu- 
ous solid  support. 
Branch  outlets  must 
be  taken  from  the 
sides  or  top  of  the 
main  lines.  Floors 
should  not  be  cut  if 
it  be  possible  to 

avoid  it;  if  done,  it  should  be  by  the  carpenter  only,  and  even  then  this  cutting 
should  be  shallow  and  no  more  than  2 feet  from  the  wall  or  other  support.  Pipes 
must  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  floor  joist,  rather  than  at  the  bottom,  so  that  they 
may  be  gotten  at  if  necessary.  Allow  no  use  of  gasfitters’  cement.  Nipples  not 
to  project  more  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  beyond  the  face  of  the  plastering. 
The  feed  of  gas  should  always  be  upward,  except  in  the  case  of  the  drop  light. 
All  pipes  should  be  placed  so  as  to  have  a slight  fall  toward  the  meter.  Caps  to 
be  left  on  all  outlets  at  the  finish  of  the  work. 

For  the  home  gas  plant  in  which  gasoline  is  used,  the  tank  should  be  outside 
and  underground,  and  the  gas  and  air-proof  air  pump  in  a well-lighted  place 
in  the  cellar  with  a vent  to  the  outside  air.  It  is  important  that  the  gas  machine  used 
be  approved  by  the  underwriters,  in  which  case  it  is  as  safe  as  the  ordinary  gas. 

For  electric  lighting,  the  material  and  workmanship  should  be  of  the  best. 
1 he  installation  should  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters.  In  order  that  you  may  have  the  benefit  of  the  best  there  is 
in  the  way  of  methods  and  appliances,  it  is  best  to  specify  that  the  installation  be  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  underwriters,  whose  methods  are  always 
up  to  date. 


Electric  table  lamps — pottery  bases  and  ieaded-glass  shades 


Portion  of  a small  bathroom  showing  enamelled  lavatory  and  tub,  with  painted  wails 


CHAPTER  XII 

Plumbing 

HE  plumbing  of  the  country  house  consists  in  the  method 
employed  to  effect  the  supply  of  water  from  its  source, 
carrying  it  over  the  house  as  desired,  and  of  its  final  disposal 
in  conjunction  with  the  wastes  into  the  sewerage  system. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  at  a glance  that  there  are  two  systems, 
working  together  and  useless  when  taken  singly  and  yet 
more  or  less  distinct  from  one  another.  There  are  several 
things  in  house  construction  that  one  cannot  afford  to  economise  on:  A good 

foundation,  a dry  cellar,  a tight  and  rigid  shell,  and  good  plumbing.  The  doors 
may  be  hung  with  iron  hinges,  the  floors  covered  with  cheap  carpeting  and  the 
mantels  be  hut  the  stained  imitation  of  a nobler  wood — all  these  accept,  but 
sacrifice  not  the  absolute  necessity. 

We  will  suppose  then  that  the  supply  has  been  decided  upon  and  arranged  for, 
and  that  it  has  a sufficient  “head”  to  carry  it  to  the  desired  height  and  to  flow  with 
sufficient  force,  outside  of  the  calculations  of  the  house  system. 

The  service  pipe  should  always  enter  the  cellar  at  a point  handy  to  the  source 
from  which  the  water  comes,  and  not  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  house,  as  perhaps 
the  plumber  might  wish.  This  point  of  entry  should  also  be  well  below  the  reach 

205 


206 


The  Country  House 


overflow; 


TANK. 


TOILET: 


SUPPLY  TO  BOILER 


PANTRY. 


KITCHEN. 


TANK 


SINK. 


SINK. 


BOWL. 


WATER 


\BACH 


WASTE. 


COLD ( 


LAUNDRY. 


\S1NK. 


ATTIC. 


SUPPLY  TANK. 


PATH  ROOM. 


BOWL. 

* 


TUB. 


Fig.  34  Section  showing  the  plumbing  of  a house  by  the  system  which  avoids  the  use  of 
the  back  vent.  It  could  be  installed,  using  enamelled  fixtures  with  best  workmanship  and 
materials,  for  about  $600.  If  soapstone  tubs  were  used  it  would  reduce  the  cost 
C.  Tank  drain  T.  Trap  H.  Hose  cock  K Cleanout  F.  Fresh-air  inlet 


of  the  frost,  unless  you  delight  in 
plumbers’  bills  and  general  inconve- 
nience. Ordinarily  the  service  pipe  is 
of  galvanised  iron,  and  in  this  case  and 
where  the  connection  is  made  with  the 
public  service,  a short  piece  of  lead 
pipe  is  introduced  between  it  and  the 
water-main  connection.  Thus  any 
unequal  settlement  will  not  break  the 
service  pipe.  This  water-main  con- 
nection or  “service  cock”  should  be 
blocked  up  with  short  lengths  of  solid 
plank  for  like  reasons. 

The  direct  system  is  the  ordinary 
one  employed,  and  consists  in  the  direct 
supplyfrom  the  service  to  the  individual 
outlets.  This  does  admirably  for  the 
low-pressure  service,  but  for  the  high 
pressure  it  allows  of  too  great  a strain 
on  the  pipes.  Who  has 
not,  in  his  chance  or  daily 
interviews  with  some 
bathroom  washbowl,  no- 
ticed the  staid  placidity  of 
the  hot  water  and  the 
extreme  activity  of  the 
cold  ? You  turn  on 
the  latter  and  it 
comes  with  a jump; 
it  is  hardly  in  the 
basin  before  it  is  out 
again — all  over  your 
shirt  front.  You 
turn  it  off,  and  the 
climax  is  a bang 
and  a jar  perceptible 
all  over  the  house. 

The  reason  for 
this  contrast  is  that 
the  cold  water  is  on 
direct  high  presure, 
while  the  hot  water 
receives  its  head 
from  a tank  in  the 
usual  manner.  With 
a system  like  this 


Plumbing 


20  7 


there  are,  to  say  nothing  of  the  annoyances,  decided  indications  that  one  of  these 
days  something  will  happen — something  swift  and  snappy,  with  lots  of  gush 
attached — and  the  plumber  will  eat  turkey.  For  a service  where  the  pressure 
does  not  exceed  thirty  or  forty  pounds  per  square  inch  this  system  works  well. 

In  cases  of  high-pressure  service  the  indirect  or  tank-supply  system  is  by 
far  the  best.  On  the  principle  that  a column  of  water  will  rise  as  high  as  its 
source  only,  the  extreme  pressure  is  removed  by  making  a new  source  of  supply 
in  a tank  one  story  above  the  highest  floor  to  be  supplied.  This  breaks  the 
service,  so  that  instead  of  having  the  extreme  pressure  of  the  initial  source  we  have 
a low  pressure  afforded  by  the  extra  height  of  the  tank,  which  for  all  ordinary 
domestic  purposes  is  sufficient. 

Such  a system  is  shown  in  Fig.  34.  The  supply  pipe,  entering  the  house  from 
without,  is  carried  horizontally  under  the  cellar  floor  timbers  to  a point  directly 
beneath  the  end  of  the  tank.  From  this  point  it  is  carried  vertically  to  the  top  of 
the  tank,  and  the  flow  of  water  is  there  controlled  by  a ball  cock.  An  overflow  is 
provided  to  the  tank,  which,  in  this  case,  is  carried  to  the  house  gutter,  and  contains 
a trap  (T)  to  prevent  outside  invasion.  The  tank  is  further  provided  with  a 
drain  from  the  bottom  (C)  which  connects  with  the  overflow  pipe;  it  is  fitted  with 
a stop  cock.  The  pipe  connection  from  C to  the  gutter  should  be  large  (say  if 
inches),  so  that  the  flow  of  water  and  fine  sediment  may  not  be  retarded  during 
the  cleaning  process,  which  should  be  frequent.  To  faciliate  the  cleaning  a 

hose-cock  attachment  is  attached  to  the  high-pressure 
service.  This  would  also  be  handy  in  case  of  fire. 

The  outlet  to  the  low-pressure  service  is  raised  slightly 
above  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  avoid  its  being  fed  with 
sediment.  The  pipe  itself  is  carried  down  through  the 
centre  of  the  plumbing  system,  supplying  closet  tanks,  bowls, 
bath  tub,  sinks,  hot-water  boiler  and  laundry  tubs. 

There  is  one  advantage  of  the  large  tank  outside  the 
considerations  of  its  ordinary  use — it  serves  as  a storage  in 
case  the  supply  is  temporarily  cut  off  from  the  street.  Those 
who  may  have  had  some  experience  in  this  line  will  at  once 
see  the  great  advantage. 

There  is  one  objection  to  the  above  system,  and  that 
is  that  the  tank  water,  while  it  may  be  wholesome  enough 
ordinarily,  is  not  very  palatable  for 


“a" 

r 


Boiler 


31] 


A 


t 


V 


/ 

JZZ 


rA 


Water-back 


-3 


drinking  purposes,  as  well  as 


being 


Fig.  35.  Section  through  hot-water  boiler  and  water  back.  The 
arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  water 


normally  warm.  To  obviate  this  diffi- 
culty a combination  of  the  two  systems 
may  be  used,  and  the  cold  water  supplied 
to  the  kitchen  sink  be  direct  from  the 
(see  Fig.  34).  If  desirable,  the 


mam 


high-pressure  pipe  may  be  tapped  on  the  second  floor  as  well,  but  this,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  kitchen  sink,  should  have  heavy  plumbing,  and  not  the  light  fixtures 
usually  forming  a part  of  the  bathroom  fittings.  I he  faucet,  too,  should  have  a 
large  outlet,  as  the  smaller  its  sectional  area  as  compared  with  that  of  the 


2o8  The  Country  House 

supply  pipe  the  greater  will  be  its  velocity,  and  this  is  one  thing  which  we  wish  to 
avoid.  It  the  water  will  not  stay  in  the  pitcher  while  you  are  drawing  it, 

what’s  the  use? 

It  is  probably 
well  understood  that 
all  substances  ex- 
pand with  the  appli- 
cation of  heat  and 
contract  with  cold. 
Water  is  no  excep- 
tion to  this  general 
rule.  As  this  expan- 
sion increases  the 
bulk  without  increas- 
ing the  specific  grav- 
ity, each  particle  of 
hot  water  is  relatively 
lighter  than  the  par- 
ticles of  cold  water, 
and  naturally  rises 
when  an  opportunity 
is  afforded.  It  is  this 
principle  that  forms 
the  basis  of  the  hot- 
water  system. 

Fig.  35  shows  a section  through  a boiler  and  waterback  which  will  illustrate  its 
application.  1 he  water  is  brought  into  the  boiler  from  the  top,  through  a pipe 
(a)  which  extends  down  through  the  inside  to  a point  near  the  bottom  (d).  1 his 

cold  -water  entry  should  always  be  below  that  of  the  hot  water  (f);  the  greater  the 
distance  the  better  the  circulation  and  the  quicker  the  service.  At  the  present  time 
some  boilers  are  made  in  which  the  connection  from  the  waterback  is  made 
directly  with  the  outlet  from  the  boiler  (b).  These  are  said  to  give  great  satis- 
faction. 1 he  office  of  the  boiler  in  this  case,  as  in  the  ordinary  svstem,  is  the 
storage  of  hot  water,  which  accumulates  at  the  top.  The  cold-water  outlet  from 
the  boiler  is  in  the  bottom  and  connects  with  the  waterback  in  the  range.  1 his 
waterback  becoming  heated,  the  water  in  it  naturally  takes  an  upward  course 
and  flows  through  a return  pipe  to  enter  the  boiler  at  f.  I bus  the  top  part  of 
the  boiler  becomes  the  hot-water  storage  and  discharges  through  the  outlet  pipe  at 
the  top  (b).  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  run  of  pipe  from  the  waterback 
to  the  boiler  does  not  pitch  or  sag  in  the  direction  in  which  the  water  is  supposed 
to  travel.  Such  conditions  naturally  destroy  the  circuit,  as  they  violate  its  first 
principle.  Pipes  should  have  easy  rather  than  abrupt  bends,  that  friction  may  be 
reduced. 

1 he  pipe  (c)  is  a safety  pipe  which  extends  up  to  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
supply  tank  (see  big.  34),  thus  allowing  for  any  expansion  or  contraction  which 
would  tend  to  the  reduction  of  the  boiler  to  junk,  as  is  frequently  the  case 


A kitchen  range  with  suspended  hot  water  boiler.  This  device  saves  the  floor  space,  which, 
in  this  case,  is  required  for  the  setting  of  the  gas  range 


Plumbing  209 

when  such  pipe  is  omitted.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  water  is  supposed  to  rise 
only  to  the  height  of  its  source;  to  make  sure  that  no  unlooked-for  spasm  shall  con- 
vert it  into  temporary  activity,  the  end  is  turned  down  over  the  tank. 

The  supply  pipe  leaving  the  boiler  makes  the  circuit  of  hot-water  connec- 
tions in  the  simplest  and  most  direct  manner — the  shorter  this  may  be  the  better. 
This  system,  as  shown,  performs  a circuit  of  the  connections  and  returns  again 
to  the  boiler  through  the  waterback.  This  keeps  the  w’ater  in  constant  circula- 
tion, and  consequently  makes  it  possible  to  draw  hot  water  at  once  from  the 
faucets  without  having  to  wait  for  it  to  run  hot.  Its  only  objection  is  in  carrying 
hot  pipes  through  the  various  rooms,  which  is  not  always  desirable.  Then,  too, 
the  wear  and  tear  on  these  pipes  is  necessarily  much  greater  than  in  a system 
where  the  circuit  is  not  installed. 

If  it  becomes  desirable  to  discontinue  the  circuit,  that  is,  to  empty  the  boiler 
and  the  hot-water  pipes,  preparatory  to  closing  the  house  for  the  season,  the  water 
is  first  shut  off  from  the  supply,  and  all  hot-water  faucets  and  the  stop  cock  (s) 
on  waste  at  the  bottom  of  boiler  opened  wide.  This  will  drain  the  entire  system, 
mostly  through  the  waste,  and  the  air  to  replace  the  water  will  find  its  way 
to  the  boiler  as  the  water  recedes  through  the  safety  and  supply  pipes.  Thus 
the  safety  pipe  and  the  open  faucets  prevent  the  possible  collapse  of  the  boiler. 

It  will  be  seen 
from  the  above  brief 
description  that  it  is 
the  pressure  that 
causes  the  delivery 
of  the  water,  but  it 
is  the  principle  of 
heated  bodies  which 
causes  the  circula- 
tion of  hot  water 
and  makes  it  poss- 
ible to  draw  this 
rather  than  the 
•cold. 

Without  going 
into  the  simple  de- 
tails of  the  necessary 
connections,  it  may 
be  stated  that  it  is 
possible  to  heat  the 

Water  f r O m two  * large  soapstone  kitchen  sink,  well  lighted  and  well  placed.  The  utensils  are  conveniently 
. arranged 

places  at  once  or 

from  either  of  the  places.  One  system  employs  two  waterbacks,  in  the  kitchen 
and  laundry  respectively,  and  connected  with  one  boiler  in  the  former  location. 
The  other  connects  two  simple  systems  with  local  boilers  and  waterbacks. 

Cracking  noises  in  the  pipes  and  waterback  and  a rumbling  in  the  boiler 
indicate  something  radically  wrong,  which  may  result  more  seriously  than  it 


210 


The  Country  House 


sounds.  Such  noises  are  more  than  likely  to  be  caused  by  poor  circulation,  due 
to  the  following  conditions:  The  connection  between  waterback  and  boiler 

may  be  sagged,  as  already  explained.  The  waterback  may  be  choked  with  dirt 
or  sediment  from  the  boiler.  If  not  attended  to  as  soon  as  discovered  it  is  liable  to 
become  stopped  up  entirely,  and  then  look  out  for  flying  fragments.  There  are  two 
conditions  attending  the  explosions  of  the  waterback.  With  the  connections 
stopped  up  and  containing  hot  water,  heat  applied  will  generate  steam,  which,  find- 
ing no  ready  outlet,  makes  one  of  its  own.  If  it  be  dry  (the  water  being  turned 
off)  and  a fire  be  built  in  the  range,  the  waterback  may  become  red  hot.  You  have 
only  to  turn  on  the  water  to  see  things  fly,  as  the  steam  may  often  be  generated 
too  fast  for  the  boiler’s  safety.  Further  danger  lies  in  the  freezing  of  the  connec- 
tions between  the  boiler  and  range.  As  the  water  may  flow  from  both  hot  and 
cold-water  faucets  at  the  sink  on  a test,  which  would  seem  to  be  all  right,  it  is 
always  best  to  examine  the  connection  before  there  is  a chance  for  trouble. 

The  ordinary  hot-water  boiler  is  deficient  in  its  construction,  inasmuch  as  it 
allows  the  cold  water  to  pass  through  the  bottom,  thus  making  the  waterback  con- 
nection a receptacle  for  sediment.  The  possible  results  from  this  source  have 
already  been  noted,  but  if  one  is  careful  to  draw  off  through  the  waste  a fair 
quantity  of  water  once  every  week  one  may  rest  easier  on  that  score.  A better 
solution  of  the  problem  would  be  the  attachment  of  a sediment  chamber  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  boiler,  and  making  the  connection  to  the  water-back  through  the  side 
of  the  boiler.  This  device  is  simple  and  effective,  collecting  the  sediment  and 
discharging  it  through  the  waste  as  desired.  Like  most  labour-saving  contriv- 
ances, it  will  not  do  the  work  automatically,  but  requires  a little  attention  at 
stated  intervals — say  about  once  a month  or  so. 

Although  the  boiler  is  sometimes  of  galvanised  iron,  it  is  true  economy  to 
use  that  made  of  copper,  as  it  is  more  durable  and  easily  cleaned. 

The  service  pipe  may  be  either  of  two  sorts,  galvanised  iron  or  lead.  The  only 
advantage  in  the  use  of  the  former  is  its  cheapness;  no  one  will  steal  it.  Its  price 
is  about  one-third  that  of  lead,  the  labour  involved  in  its  use  about  one-sixth  that 
of  the  latter.  It  has  several  disadvantages,  however,  which  are  more  or  less  serious. 
If  the  coating  comes  off,  as  it  frequently  does  in  bending  or  otherwise,  the 
exposed  pipe  will  rust.  The  coating  process  sometimes  leaves  rough  surfaces  on 
the  inside  of  the  pipe,  which  retards  the  flow  of  the  water  and  forms  a base  for 
the  collection  of  further  obstruction.  Being  a hard  metal,  it  will  not  stand  the 
frost  as  well  as  lead,  but  is  apt  to  crack.  The  principal  ingredient  of  the  galvan- 
ised coat  is  zinc,  dangerous  if  taken  into  the  system,  and  all  the  more  so  if  the 
water  be  pure. 

The  lead  pipe  is  perhaps  on  the  whole  more  safe  than  the  galvanised  iron. 
When  new,  however,  there  is  a slight  danger  of  poisoning,  especially  when  the 
water  is  perfectly  clear.  Ordinarily  the  slight  sediment  from  the  water  forms  a 
thin  protecting  lining  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe,  thus  stopping  any  action  of  the  water 
upon  it.  Lead  pipe  is  more  durable  than  iron  and  easier  to  repair. 

The  tin-lined  lead  pipe,  although  serviceable  for  some  purposes,  requires  to 
be  put  together  by  a first-class  workman,  as  the  tin  melts  at  a lower  temperature 
than  the  lead,  thus  causing  complications.  As  the  first-class  plumber  is  not 


212 


The  Country  House 


always  to  be  gotten  the  experiment  is  risky,  to  say  the  least.  Because  the  tin 
lining  has  no  real  hold  on  the  lead,  being  simply  pressed  closely  to  the  latter,  it  is 

apt  to  separate  from 
it  when  the  pipe  is 
bent.  This  often 
results  in  a weak 
place  which  will 
burst  sooner  or  later. 
When  used  for  hot 
water  this  style  of 
pipe  is  at  its  worst, 
as  the  unequal  ex- 
pansion of  the  two 
metals  soon  leaves 
the  lining  loose  on 
the  inside. 

For  use  in  the 
hot-water  system  the 
brass  or  copper 
pipe  is  without 
question  the  best; 
lead  is  too  soft  to 
stand  the  heat  test, 
and  wrought  iron 

will  rust  rapidly.  1 he  joints  used  in  the  connections  should  be  threaded; 
where  union  joints  are  used,  they  should  be  of  the  ground-joint  pattern. 
Under  no  circumstances  use  a soldered  joint.  The  initial  expenditure  necessitated 
by  the  use  of  brass  or  copper  will  be  more  than  a saving,  if  we  consider  the  repair  ex- 
penses attending  the  use  of  lead  or  iron.  In  the  exposed  work,  where  the  several 
pipes  are  put  up  together,  they  should  be  separated  by  at  least  an  inch;  or  more, 
if  possible. 

In  the  adjusting  of  pipes  that  run  horizontally  or  in  another  than  vertical 
direction,  brass  may  be  hung  by  ornamental  hangers  or  bands,  at  reasonable  dis- 
tances apart  to  avoid  sagging.  Lead  should  be  run  on  boards  placed  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  affixed  to  it  by  bands  or  metal  tacks  placed  close  enough  to  avoid  any 
possibility  of  sag.  The  board  support  should  be  used  in  vertical  runs  of  lead 
as  well. 

Hot-water  pipes  running  horizontally  should  be  inclined  upward  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  flow  of  the  water.  Never  let  it  drop  below  the  level  unless  you  wish 
to  stop  or  injure  the  circuit.  Hot-water  pipes  should  never  be  allowed  to  sag. 
I he  arrangement  in  all  houses  should  be  such  that  all  the  water  may  be  drained 
from  the  system  if  so  desired.  Whether  this  be  done  by  inclining  the  pipe  or  by  a 
stop  and  waste  is  immaterial,  although  the  former  method  should  be  employed  if 
practical. 

The  sizes  of  pipe  vary,  but  they  are  ordinarily  f-inch  for  outlets,  f-inch  for 
hot  and  cold  water  supplies,  and  i-inch  for  the  main  service  pipe'.  The  supply 


End  of  a first-story  laundry  showing  the  relative  position  of  the  soapstone  tubs  to  the  light 


Plumbing  213 

pipe  from  the  attic  tank  may  be  as  large  as  i\  inches,  as  the  branches  are 
numerous  and  the  pressure  low. 

The  stop  cock  is  a shut-off  introduced  in  a length  of  pipe  to  stop  the  flow  of 
water.  As  it  is  usually  necessary  to  drain  the  water  from  the  pipe  beyond  the 
supply  in  case  of  repairs  or  to  guard  against  freezing,  the  cock  should  be  fitted 
with  a waste.  I his  contrivance  allows  the  waste  to  flow  back  through  an  outlet  in 
the  cock  simultaneously  with  the  shutting  off  of  the  water.  Thus  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  a vessel  of  some  sort  to  catch  the  waste.  In  some  instances,  notably 
where  the  flow  of  the  waste  takes  a downward  turn,  with  an  outlet  below,  the  waste 
cock  is  not  necessary. 

A stop  cock  and  waste  should  be  provided  close  to  the  entry  of  the  supply  into 
the  house,  and  should  be  capable  of  draining  the  entire  cold-water  system.  A plain 
stop  cock  should  be  fitted  to  the  cold-water  supply  to  the  boiler  near  its  entry. 
Other  cocks  may  be  distributed  so  that  individual  fixtures  or  groups  of  fixtures 
may  be  cut  off  without  interrupting  the  main  circuit;  these  are  handy  in  case  of 
repairs.  Never  put  a stop  cock  in  an 
overflow  pipe. 

A tank  valve  is  an  automatic  cock 
used  to  control  the  flow  from  the  sup- 
ply pipe  into  the  tank.  It  consists  of  a 
hollow  metal  ball  attached  to  the  end 
of  an  arm  which  is  connected  with  the 
valve.  The  ball  floats  on  the  water; 
the  lowering  of  the  water  opens  the  sup- 
ply valve,  by  downward  inclination  of 
the  arm;  the  water,  rising,  raises  the 
ball,  decreasing  the  flow  until  the  valve 
is  finally  closed.  If  the  valve  he  slow  or 
weak, an  increase  in  the  length  of  the  arm 
or  the  size  of  the  hall  will  strengthen  it. 

The  old-fashioned  make  of  faucets 
of  the  groundwork  type  is  now  little 
employed.  It  was  similar  to  the  com- 
mon wooden  spigot  used  for  casks  and 
barrels.  The  compression  cock,  the  most 
common  form  to-day,  although  made  in  a 
variety  of  types,  is  closed  by  the  compres- 
sion of  a sliding  disk  screwed  down 
upon  the  valve  opening;  this  disk  has  a 
washer  affixed  to  it  to  prevent  leakage. 

A variation  of  the  compression  cock  is  the  self-closing  faucet.  In  this  a 
spring  holds  the  valve  on  its  seat  when  not  in  use,  the  application  of  hand 
pressure  being  necessary  in  order  to  get  water.  Such  an  arrangement  prevents  the 
dangers  attending  the  leaving  of  the  cock  open.  By  the  use  of  the  above  little 
Willie’s  pleasant  pastime  of  spoiling  ceilings  is  fortunately  avoided.  With  the 
overflow  the  running  water  can  do  no  damage,  but  the  waste  is  a considerable 


214 


The  Country  House 


A good  example  of  modern  bathroom,  with  porcelain  fixtures,  marble  wainscotting,  tile  floor 

and  simple  accessories 


consideration.  On  account  of  the  sudden  change  in  the  pressure  of  the  water, 
and  the  construction  of  this  faucet,  it  has  one  objectionable  feature — that  of 

vibration.  When 
closed  suddenly  it  is 
apt  to  jump,  and 
the  increase  of  pres- 
sure occasioned  by 
closing  some  other 
faucet  in  the  house 
will  produce  the 
same  result.  In  this 
way  the  connections 
are  considerably 
jarred,  and  its  con- 
tinuance is  very 
likely  to  cause  leaks. 

The  sill  cock  is  a 
form  of  faucet  used 
on  the  outside  of 
the  house  for  the 
connection  of  the 
garden  hose.  The 
branch  leading  to  it 
from  the  supply 
pipe  should  be  fitted  with  a stop  cock. 

The  ordinary  washer  or  packing  for 
faucets  is  usually  of  leather  or  rubber. 
Hot  water,  however,  soon  takes  the  life 
out  of  these  materials,  thus  rendering 
them  worthless.  For  this  purpose  we 
should  use  an  alloy  of  some  sort  con- 
taining brass;  perhaps  bronze. 

The  pump  is  made  possible  by 
certain  physical  laws.  Nature  abhors 
a vacuum;  thus  all  space  not  otherwise 
occupied  is  naturally  filled  with  air. 
A vacuum  is  a false  condition  in  which 
a confined  space  contains  nothing.  4 he 
normal  pressure  of  the  air  at  the  sea 
level  is  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch. 
This  pressure  is  equally  distributed 
upon  everything  alike.  It  is  this  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  which  makes  it 
theoretically  possible  to  raise  a column  of  water  to  a height  of  34  feet  by  the  use 
of  the  suction  pump.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  a column  of  water 
one  inch  square  and  34  feet  high  will  weigh  about  14.7  pounds,  being  equal  to 
the  pressure  of  the  air  on  one  square  inch  of  surface.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the 


Y////MA  'EM 


Suction 


Tump . 


= = lift.  °r  Force  Pump 
showing 

Air  Chamber. 


Fig.  36.  Showing  two  types  of  pumps 


Plumbing  215 

ordinary  pump  is  not  sufficiently  tight  to  produce  a perfect  vacuum,  therefore 
the  height  to  which  the  water  may  actually  be  raised  is  somewhat  below  this.  It  is 
generally  considered  to  be  25  feet. 

The  working  of  an  ordinary  suction  pump  is  shown  in  Fig.  36.  The 
plunger  (b),  fitting  snugly  into  the  cylinder  (d),  is  moved  up  and  down  by 
means  of  the  attached  plunger  rod  and  pump  handle.  By  lowering  the  plunger  the 
air  in  the  cylinder  below  it  is  forced  out  through  the  plunger  valve  (c).  The 
valve  (a)  remains  closed  in  inaction,  and  also  against  downward  pressure,  opening 
only  to  pressure  from  below.  By  raising  the  plunger  the  tendency  is  to  form  a 
vacuum.  The  air  pressing  upon  the  top  of  the  plunger  finds  no  access  to  the 
space  below,  but  that  pressing  on  the  top  of  the  water  in  the  well  forces  a quantity 
of  water  into  the  suction  pipe  to  replace  the  air  drawn  out  of  it  into  the  lower  part 
of  the  cylinder.  By  the  successive  up-and-down  thrusts  of  the  plunger  the  air  is 
exhausted  from  the  suction  pipe  and  the  water,  forced  after  it  by  the  pressure  of  the 
outside  atmosphere, 
ejected 
plunger 
valve  (c),  and  thus 
through  the  pump 
spout  as  it  rises 
higher  in  the  cyl- 
inder. 

Thus  it  appears 
that  this  type  of 
pump  at  first  draws 
air  and,  having  ex- 
hausted the  air  by 
suction,  then  draws 
water.  If  the  work- 
ing parts  could  be 
made  perfectly  tight, 
the  amount  of  water 
raised  at  each  full 
stroke  wTould  equal 
the  cubic  space  in 
the  cylinder  below 

the  plunger  when  that  member  is  raised  to  the  full  height  of  stroke.  This  amount 
of  cubic  space,  less  the  amount  of  water  actually  raised  each  full  stroke,  shows  the 
amount  of  leakage. 

1 he  lift  pump,  like  the  foregoing,  follows  the  same  general  principle,  which 
is  the  same  in  all  pumps.  Its  notable  difference  is  in  the  location  of  the  cylinder, 
which  is  submerged  in  the  water  at  the  end  of  the  pump  pipe.  There  is  no  air 
below  the  plunger  to  exclude,  and  hence  the  water  is  lifted  by  successive  strokes 
through  the  pump  pipe  in  the  manner  already  described.  Of  the  two,  this  type 
is  the  better  working,  owing  to  the  parts  being  tighter,  submerged  as  they  con- 
stantly are,  but  it  is  more  expensive  and  harder  to  get  at  in  case  of  accident  than 


Portion  of  a bathroom  showing  a simple  and  tasty  tile  wainscotting 


is  finally 
through  the 


2i6 


The  Country  House 


the  suction  pump,  which  has  all  its  working  parts  above  the  well  and  within  easy 
reach.  For  this  reason  the  latter  is  the  more  frequently  used. 

For  deep  wells  (say  150  feet  or  less)  the  lift  pump  with  air-chamber 
attachment  is  excellent.  I his  may  also  be  used  as  a combined  lift  and  force 
pump  by  the  use  of  simple  attachments  (see  Fig.  36).  The  air  chamber  should  be 
used  on  all  plunger  force  pumps,  as  it  allows  of  a greater  discharge  of  water 
in  a given  time,  and  also  a more  uniform  flow  of  water,  which  is  most  desirable. 
In  the  section  shown  the  pump  can  be  used  in  the  ordinary  way  by  closing  the 
pipe  in  the  air  chamber  with  the  cap  (c)  and  drawing  water  from  the  faucet  (d), 
or  by  closing  the  faucet  and  connecting  the  aforesaid  pipe  with  piping  main  to 
supply  tank  it  may  be  used  as  a force  pump.  In  this  latter  arrangement  a stop 
cock  is  fitted  to  the  pipe  connection  above  the  air  chamber,  so  that  the  pump 
may  be  used  either  way  desired.  In  cases  of  fire  a hose  can  be  attached  to  the 
faucet,  and  the  water  forced  through  it  in  the  same  manner  as  through  the  pipe. 

The  cut  shows  the  operation  of  this  style  of  pump.  The  water  is  at 
about  the  level  in  the  air  chamber  that  it  would  occupy  while  the  pump  was  work- 
ing and  the  air  under  pressure.  Suppose  the  faucet  to  be  open  and  the  pump  to 

be  empty,  the  cylinder  is  supposed  to 
be  submerged  in  the  water  of  the  well, 
and,  as  is  ordinarily  the  case  with  such 
pumps,  is  from  2 to  3 inches  in  its  in- 
side diameter,  while  the  outlet  of  the 
faucet  is  1 to  1 2 inches.  We  start  the 
pump  and  the  water  gradually  rises  to 
the  check  valve  (a),  and,  passing 
through  it,  finds  an  outlet  through  the 
faucet.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
cylinder  and  the  water  channel  above 
are  of  larger  diameter  than  the  faucet 
outlet,  all  the  water  cannot  be  ejected 
as  the  result  of  each  upward  stroke  of 
the  plunger  rod.  I herefore  the  surplus 
is  forced  into  the  air  chamber,  compress- 
ing the  air  (b)  to  about  half  its  normal 
bulk.  The  downward  motion  of  the 
plunger  exerts  no  pressure  on  the  water; 
rather  it  relieves  it.  Naturally  the  water 
would  fall  back,  and  were  it  not  for  the 
air  chamber  and  valve  (a)  the  water 
would  cease  to  flow  from  the  faucet. 
As  it  is,  the  compressed  air  (b)  exerts  the  spring  of  its  compression,  the  valve 
(a)  closes  and  the  water  is  still  forced  out  of  the  faucet,  and  before  tbe  air 
chamber  lias  been  emptied  a new  supply  has  been  brought  forward.  It  will 
further  be  seen  that  as  the  flow  of  water  is  continuous  air  cannot  pass  back  into 
the  pump,  and  a consequent  loss  of  power  is  avoided. 

As  the  piping  in  such  a well  is  naturally  long,  it  should  have  some  cross  sup- 


Plumbing  217 

port  at  the  bottom  and  perhaps  in  the  upper  interval,  to  keep  it  from  vibrat- 
ing and  thus  loosening  the  working  parts.  To  protect  this  pump  from  freezing  it 
is  advisable  to  drill  an  ^-inch  hole  in 
the  pipe,  some  5 or  6 feet  below  the 
supporting  platform,  so  that  the  water 
will  readily  drain  off  to  a safe  level  after 
use.  This  hole  will  cause  but  a slight 
loss  of  water  and  will  save  much  annoy- 
ance and  expense. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  attic  tanks, 
the  wooden,  with  metal  lining,  and  the 
all-metal  tank.  The  former  is  made  of 
plank  and  usually  put  together  with  tie- 
bolts  (see  Fig.  37).  There  are  but  two 
linings  for  this  worth  considering,  sheet 
lead  and  sheet  copper.  Lead  was  the 
first  material  used  and  lasts  very  well, 
but  has  gradually  given  way  to  copper 
and  the  all-metal  tank.  This  is  largely 
due  to  the  poisonous  qualities  of  the 
former  under  certain  conditions.  Lead 
well  covered  with  water  collects  (as 
we  have  elsewhere  stated)  a fine  sedi- 
ment which  protects  it  from  corrosion 
by  the  action  of  the  water,  the  real  source  of  danger.  If  the  water  be  drawn 
from  the  tank  or  in  any  other  way  the  wet  lead  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air, 
then  corrosion  begins.  In  this  alternate  wetting  and  drying  lies  the  danger;  such 
conditions  are  likely  to  occur  in  one  way  or  another;  it  is  safer  not  to  use  lead. 

Sheet  copper  should  be  lined  with  tin,  as  bare  copper  is  even  more  poisonous 
than  lead  under  such  conditions.  In  large  copper-lined 
tanks,  owing  to  the  limited  sizes  of  the  metal  sheets,  joints 
must  of  necessity  be  made.  1 hese  joints  may  be  of  the  sort 
termed  double  or  lock  seams,  in  which  the  two  sheets  of 
metal  are  turned  into  one  another,  hammered  flat  and  then 
carefully  soldered  together. 

Wooden  tanks  are  sometimes  made  without  lining, 
more  particularly  when  of  large  size.  In  such  cases,  as  in 
fact  with  all  tanks,  the  tank  should  be  slightly  elevated  and 
rest  on  a metal  tray  some  2 or  3 inches  deep  and  pro- 
jecting perhaps  a foot  beyond  the  tank  on  all  sides.  This, 
connected  with  a fair-sized  drain,  should  protect  the  house 
in  case  of  leakage. 

The  cast-iron  sectional  tank,  as  its  name  indicates,  is 
made  of  separate  adjustable  parts  or  plates  which  are 
bolted  together,  using  cement  joints.  The  separate  sections  are  easily  handled 
and  adjusted,  owing  to  their  comparatively  small  size.  Its  lasting  qualities  are  good. 


Fig.  37.  Horizontal  section  of 
a wooden*  metJ-lined  tank 


218  The  Country  House 

Every  tank  should  have  an  overflow  pipe  attached  to  it  a little  below  the  top, 
to  avoid  any  possible  chance  of  flooding  the  house.  It  should  be  considerably 
larger  in  sectional  area  than  the  feed  pipe,  for  the  reason  that  water  will  not  run 
from  it  with  equal  force  to  that  of  the  higher-pressure  supply.  It  should  not 

drain  into  the  sewer  or  its  connections, 
as  even  with  a trap  the  sewer  gas 
would  escape.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  overflow  is  merely  a precau- 
tion and  is  not  brought  into  play  but 
at  very  rare  intervals,  thus  any  trap 
would  become  dry  and  useless.  For 
this  reason  it  should  be  carried  to  the 
outside  air,  as  to  the  house  gutter,  or  be 
brought  down  over  some  fixture,  like  a 
sink,  which  is  in  constant  use.  In 
event  of  its  opening  to  the  outside  air, 
a fine  screen  of  sufficient  mesh  to  ex- 
clude possible  explorers  should  be 
attached  to  the  outlet. 

1 he  top  of  all  tanks  should  be 
open  for  ventilation,  and  to  prevent 
loose  insects  from  committing  suicide 
a thin  cheesecloth  canopy  may  be  found 
to  be  of  advantage.  If  this  be  so 
constructed  on  ribs  that  will  not  al- 
low of  its  “bagging”  on  the  top,  it 
may  be  found  an  excellent  screen  for 
dust  as  well. 

Under  the  head  of  “fixtures”  we 
shall  consider  such  accessories  as  washbasins,  bathtubs,  sinks,  water  closets,  etc., 
but  before  doing  this  a word  may  be  said  on  the  subject  of  open  plumbing. 

1 he  installation  of  the  plumbing  fixtures  in  the  old  way,  that  of  enclosing 
everything  possible  in  a wooden  casing,  should  not  be  considered  for  a moment.  Not 
only  does  it  make  the  working  parts  extremely  hard  to  get  at  in  case  of  trouble, 
but  it  tempts  the  cheap  plumber  to  dishonest  work  and  aids  him  to  perform  it 
with  little  fear  of  detection.  So  soon  as  the  sheathing  is  in  place  it  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  tell  what  it  may  conceal.  The  author  remembers  distinctly  his  ex- 
perience in  a little  house  just  outside  of  New  York  City.  The  plumbing  was 
of  this  type,  and  the  first  time  the  bathtub  was  used  it  was  filled  too  full,  so  that 
on  getting  into  it  the  tide  at  once  rose  above  the  overflow  outlet.  \ isibly  there  was 
nothing  wrong,  but  a protesting  cry  from  the  kitchen  resulted  in  a hasty  with- 
drawal from  the  tub,  and  an  investigation  elicited  the  fact  that  no  overflow 
pipe  had  been  attached  to  the  overflow.  It  was  not  from  neglect  nor  absent- 
mindedness  that  such  an  oversight  occurred.  It  was  a deliberately  planned 
scheme  on  the  part  of  the  plumber  to  cheat  his  employer. 

With  the  open  plumbing  the  case  is  different;  all  the  working  parts  are 


Portion  of  a small  bathroom  showing  a handy  shower  bath  and 
a serviceable  lavatory  and  mirror 


Plumbing  219 

visible,  and  the  ordinary  tests  which  might  well  pass  over  the  instance  cited 
would  avail  nothing  here;  the  overflow  pipe  is  plainly  visible.  Besides  being  easier 
to  get  at  and  keep  clean,  it  is  neater  and  far  healthier.  Water-soaked  woodwork 
becomes  filthy  in  a very  short  time;  the  invasion  of  the  water  invites  other 
moistures  and  the  adherence  of  much  that  is  unsanitary.  For  this  reason  wood 
should  be  avoided  when  there  is  danger  of  its  becoming  wet. 

When  we  meet  the  lavatory  in  ordinary  life  it  is  just  plain  “basin.”  The 
term  originally  meant  “a  place  of  washing,”  and  as  such  it  stands  to-day.  The 
common  form  is  the  porcelain  basin  proper,  with  the  marble  slab  and  back. 
I his  slab  is  supported  by  brackets,  and  the  basin  is  fastened  to  the  under  side 
of  the  slab.  This  is  not  as  good  as  the  procelain  article  made  all  in  one  piece, 
although  if  the  latter  should  become  broken  it  means  the  replacing  of  the  whole, 
whereas  the  former,  being  in  separate  parts,  may  be  a less  expensive  job.  The 
all-porcelain  lavatory  is  supported  either  on  one  or  more  legs  or  on  brackets, 
as  one  desires.  It  is  probably  the  experience  of  everyone  that  a leg  of  any  kind 
is  continually  in  the  way.  Perhaps  if  our  own  were  modelled  on  other  lines  and 
had  less  turned  up  in  front  for 
feet  there  would  be  a saving  of 
trouble  on  the  whole.  As  it 

is,  it  would  seem  that  the 
bracket  support  for  the  basin 
were  the  better  and  more  sat- 
isfactory choice. 

Every  basin  should  have 
an  overflow  as  well  as  a drain 
in  the  bottom  to  connect  with 
the  waste.  The  drain  is  closed 
by  a stopper,  but  the  overflow 
should  always  be  unobstructed 
(see  Fig.  38). 

The  lined  wooden  sink 
being  decidedly  out  of  date, 
there  is  no  use  in  considerin': 

it.  The  enamelled-iron  sink 
gives  a strong  base,  with  a 
smooth  finish  easily  kept  clean, 
and  is  excellent  for  anything 
but  the  kitchen  or  where 
heavy  pots  and  kettles  are  to 
be  used.  The  enamelled 
coating  cracks  and  chips  easily 
when  things  are  dropped  in  it. 

The  porcelain  sink  is 
another  sanitary  perfection 
which  is  ill  adapted  to  hard  knocks.  For  the  lighter  work  it  is  excellent,  but 
for  the  kitchen  the  aforesaid  pots  must  be  reckoned  with.  The  soapstone  sink 


Tin-lined  copper  sink  in  butler’s  pantry,  well  lighted  and  convenient  to  cupboard 


220  The  Country  House 

is  excellent  for  the  kitchen,  and  a recognised  favourite.  It  absorbs  neither 
moisture  nor  grease,  nor  is  it  affected  by  acids.  Its  colour  is  also  in  its  favour. 

1 he  ordinary  cast-iron  sink,  if  properly  cared  for,  is  as  good  as  any.  It 
requires  oiling  occasionally,  and  with  this  precaution  gives  much  satisfaction.  The 
galvanised  one,  although  supposed  to  be  superior  to  the  iron,  is  apt  to  show 

spots,  and  is  not  on  the  whole  absolutely 
rust  proof,  although  it  is  much  used  and 
seems  to  give  satisfaction.  The  vege- 
table sink  is  a handy  accessory  to  a 
large  kitchen.  It  is  usually  of  porcelain 
and  consequently  easy  to  keep  clean. 

1 he  best  manner  of  arranging  the 
sink  is  to  make  it  perfectly  free,  without 
any  closets  under  it.  It  should  stand 
on  iron  legs  or  brackets,  as  the  case  may 
require,  and  the  closed-in  closet  may 
come  under  the  dish  drainer  and  slabs 
on  either  side  of  it  if  desired.  Even 
th  is  last  may  be  objected  to  by  the  ex- 
tremist, and  perhaps  with  reason,  but 
there  must  be  a place  to  stow  away  some 
of  the  necessary  kitchen  miscellany  (un- 
less we  adopt  the  French  system),  even  if  the  bold  and  saucy  cockroach  hies 
himself  to  its  inviting  depths,  much  to  our  annoyance  and  discomfort. 

It  would  be  well  to  insist  that  the  place  for  the  laundry  is  not  in  the  kitchen. 
When  it  becomes  a mix-up  between  the  soiled  clothing  and  the  lunch  we  draw 
the  line  for  self-protection.  The  laundry  is  best  and  most  convenient  if  located 
on  the  same  floor  as  the  kitchen,  but  conditions  more  frequently  relegate  it 
to  the  depths  of  an  ill-lighted  cellar. 

Naturally  the  soapstone  tub  suggests  itself  first,  as  it  has  been  long  on  the 
market  and  has  given  evident  satisfaction.  Its  advantages  are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  soapstone  sink.  They  usually  come  in  twos  and  threes  made  up  together, 
and  are  set  on  iron  legs. 

The  porcelain  tub  is  perhaps  better  than  the  above  for  several  reasons.  It 
is  made  singly;  thus  as  many  as  one  wishes  can  be  set  up  side  by  side.  It  also  has 
rounded  corners  and  interior  angles — another  advantage.  All  tubs  should  have 
waste  and  overflow  pipes,  as  the  principle  is  that  of  the  lavatory  or  basin.  The 
old-style  bathtub,  of  wood  and  copper  lining,  has  long  ago  passed  into  oblivion, 
and  the  afore-mentioned  lining  made  to  line  the  pockets  of  many  a small  boy, 
doubly  glad  that  he  was  alive.  We  now  have  the  porcelain  and  enamelled  iron 
to  choose  from,  and  of  the  two  there  is  probably  very  little  difference  as  far  as 
general  utility  is  concerned.  Manufacturers  of  the  best  enamelled  ware  claim  that 
their  product  is  better  than  porcelain  for  several  reasons:  Its  cost  is  about  one  half 
that  of  the  latter,  besides  being  about  one  half  the  weight.  It  will  not  crack  or  chip 
with  ordinary  use.  The  porcelain  tub  absorbs  heat  and  hence  requires  hotter  water. 

Bathtubs  are  made  in  many  patterns  and  sizes;  some  set  on  legs  and  some 


BASIN 


Plumbing  221 

directly  on  the  floor.  Of  these  the  former  are  better  for  obvious  reasons. 
They  are  all  provided  with  waste  and  overflow,  as  well  as  hot  and  cold  water.  In 
placing  the  tub  in  the  bathroom  it  is  well  not  to  set  it  under  or  with  back  to  the 
window,  although  it  may  face  it.  Whatever  its  location,  it  should  be  distant. 

The  shower  bath,  as  ordinarily  used,  is  placed  over  the  bathtub,  and  con- 
sists of  a shower  or  sprinkler  at  the  top, 
with  an  enclosing  curtain  to  keep  the 
miniature  rain  storm  where  it  belongs. 

A simple  form  of  this  may  be  had  for 
from  $18  to  $20.  Sometimes  it  forms 

with  a basin  of 
its  own,  but  the  former  type  is  the  most 
used,  as  it  is  cheaper  and  detracts  noth- 
ing from  the  tub,  while  the  latter  takes 
up  extra  room  of  its  own. 

It  is  needless  to  waste  time  describ- 
ing the  ancient  “pan”  and  ‘‘plunger” 
closets.  Both  are  practically  obsolete; 
and  our  present  needs  require  the  best 
that  is  to  be  had.  The  old  “washout” 
closet  is  a decided  step  in  advance,  but 
as  it  holds  very  little  water  it  easily  be- 
comes foul,  and  hence  the  source  of  bad  odours,  nor  does  it  wash  out  as  its  name 
implies.  The  three  foregoing  types  were  natural  steps  toward  the  present  form. 

The  best  article  on  the  market  to-day  is  the  “syphon”  closet.  It  is  made 
in  numerous  patterns  and  differs  slightly  in  some  details,  but  its  general  principles 
are  the  same.  This  style  is  made  so  as  to  hold  considerable  water  in  the  bowl, 
both  of  which  (the  water  and  the  bowl)  form  a natural  seal  or  trap  which  pre- 
vents the  gases  from  escaping  through  it  from  the  soil  pipe.  I he  bowl  is 
flushed  or  emptied  through  the  medium  of  a discharge  of  tank  water,  which, 
either  by  its  own  action  or  the  supplementary  one  of  air,  creates  a syphonic  action 
which  empties  the  bowl  and  at  the  same  time  refills  it  with  clean  water.  Take', 
for  example,  the  style  shown  (Fig.  39).  From  the  construction  of  the  bowl  and 
the  normal  position  of  the  water,  it  is  readily  seen  that  sewer  gas  cannot  escape 
through  the  seal  thus  formed.  To  empty  the  bowl  the  water  is  released  from 
the  tank,  which  expels  the  air  in  the  supply  pipe  and  in  the  two  canals  (a)  which 
pass  either  side  of  the  long  syphon  limb  (b)  into  the  water  at  the  back  of  the  bowl 
in  such  a way  as  to  take  an  upward  and  backward  turn  (c).  This  starts  the 
syphon  in  the  trap,  and  the  water  which  follows  it  completes  the  work.  At  the 
same  time  a limited  flow  of  water  is  filling  the  bowl  through  the  flushing  rim  (d). 
This  slow  flow  of  water  allows  the  air  to  get  in  between  it  and  the  discharged 
water,  thus  breaking  the  syphon  and  allowing  the  undisturbed  refilling  of  the 
bowl.  The  passage  of  the  discharge  down  the  syphon  limb  and  soil  pipe  forms 
a temporary  seal  until  the  normal  seal  is  completed  in  the  bowl.  Another  form 
ejects  by  a downflow  of  water  the  air  contained  in  the  syphon  limb  and  several  air 
chambers  attached  in  such  a way  as  to  induce  a vacuum  and  cause  the  syphonic 


an  independent  feature 


222 


The  Country  House 

action.  Each  closet  should  have  a separate  tank  of  its  own,  used  only  for  the 
individual  needs  of  such  fixtures.  This  is  important,  as  with  the  single  tank  one 
breakdown  may  hold  up  several  closets. 

To  remove  local  odours,  a “local  vent”  should  be  attached  to  every  closet 
above  the  syphon.  This,  to  be  effective,  should  connect  with  the  kitchen  chimney 
flue  or  some  other  medium  of  heat,  which  should  induce  a draught  at  all  times  if 
possible.  It  should  not  open  directly  into  such  flue  but  be  carried  up  inside  it  to 
the  top  in  a 2-inch  iron  pipe.  If  such  a connection  cannot  be  made,  a special 
heat  should  be  provided  to  induce  a draught,  and  never  should  the  local  vent 
rely  on  natural  draught  or  be  connected  with  the  soil  ventilating  pipe.  This  is 
often  done,  but  it  is  exceedingly  risky. 

In  some  houses  a special  “slop”  closet  is  provided,  so  that  the  chamber 
work  may  not  interfere  with  the  bathroom.  In  this  is  set  a slop  sink,  which  is  a deep 
sink  very  like  a laundry  tub,  having  water  cocks  and  waste  with  no  stopper. 

The  complete  bathroom  varies  much  in  cost  owing  to  the  style  of  fittings  em- 
ployed. Such  fittings  as  the  tub,  closet  and  lavatory  or  basin  (unset),  in  a good 
quality  of  enamelled  iron,  may  be  had  for  $75.  Adding  a shower  bath  to  the 
above,  the  cost  would  be  about  $100.  In  porcelain  the  bath,  closet  and  lava- 
tory might  cost  about  $170.  The  more  elaborate  affair  will  easily  spoil  the  com- 
mercial value  of  a thousand-dollar  bill. 

If  one  has  a cold-water  system  in  the  house  and  wishes  to  install  a bathroom 
and  hot-water  system,  he  can  get  an  enamelled  tub  and  closet,  a porcelain  bowl  and 
marble  slab,  copper  tank,  iron  sink  and  two  soapstone  tubs  for  laundry  for 
about  $300,  the  whole  set  in  the  best  manner,  simple  and  complete. 

Having  considered  the  supply  system  and  its  fixtures,  we  will  now  turn  our 
attention  to  the  disposal  of  waste.  This  is  effected  through  iron  pipes,  the  larger 
of  which,  called  the  soil  pipe,  constitutes  the  main  artery  of  the  sanitation  system. 
Naturally  the  various  fixtures  connect  with  this  in  various  ways,  which  we 
shall  consider  later. 

When  one  looks  at  the  sanitation  drawing  for  an  average  house  within  the 
limits  of  our  bigger  cities,  one  is  struck  by  its  apparent  complication,  and, 
when  one  considers  that  this  is  but  about  half  the  plumbing  problem,  it  looks 
more  than  ever  like  a plumber’s  dream  of  perpetual  bliss.  But  this  is  not  all  a 
dream;  it  is  a reality  made  compulsory  by  the  building  laws  of  most  of  our  chief 
cities  and  even  lesser  cities.  How  the  plumber  must  have  smiled  when  this  law 
made  the  amount  of  work  on  the  sanitary  system  nearly  double  what  it  was  before. 
Yet  this  law  was  intended  to  remedy  an  evil — with  what  result  we  may  judge. 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  sanitary  outlets  were  through  the  soil  pipe 
and  its  branches,  but,  having  disposed  of  the  wastes  in  this  manner,  we  are  still 
confronted  by  the  problem  of  the  rising  sewer  gas,  which  would  find  unobstructed 
outlets  through  the  open  waste  connections.  To  obviate  this  the  trap  was  in- 
vented. This  consists  in  a certain  form  of  pipe,  or  attachment,  designed  to  hold  a 
small  quantity  of  water  at  all  times,  so  that  the  escape  of  the  aforesaid  gas  may  be 
absolutely  checked. 

The  common  form  was  the  “S”  trap,  which  was  merely  the  reverse 
bending  of  an  ordinary  pipe  (see  Fig.  40).  As  the  water  was  poured  from  the 


Plumbing 


223 


Fig.  40.  Section  showing  three  simple  trap  forms 


receptacle  above  it  overflowed  the  bend,  and  was  supposed  to  leave  enough 
water  at  all  times  to  keep  the  seal  closed.  There  are  two  things,  however, 
which  menace  this — evaporation  and  syphonage.  As  every  trap  has  more  or  less 
connection  with  the  air,  unless  it  be  used  at  frequent  intervals  the  dangers 
from  evaporation  are  great.  1 his  is  particularly  noticeable  of  a house  stand- 
ing idle;  its  traps  require  immediate 
attention  when  it  is  opened.  A consid- 
erable flow  of  water  is  apt  to  syphon 
the  trap,  there  being  no  interval  of  air 
to  check  it.  It  is  this  fact  which  was 
at  the  bottom  of  the  vent  law,  which 
was  to  the  effect  that:  “All  traps  must 
have  a vent  pipe  of  suitable  size  con- 
nected at  or  near  the  crown  of  the  trap,  and  extending  either  separately  up  to  the 
roof  or  connected  with  the  soil-pipe  line  above  the  highest  fixture.”  The  back 
vent  is  a remedy  against  this  evil,  but  it  is  claimed  by  some  that  it  involves  other 
evils  of  its  own.  How  this  back  vent  works  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  38.  As  long 
as  the  water  maintains  a level  above  the  point  T no  gas  can  escape,  and  its 
normal  condition  is  that  of  V,  which  forms  the  water  seal.  Water  flowing  from 
the  basin  raises  the  level  of  the  seal  above  point  S,  causing  it  to  overflow  into  the 
waste  pipe  (D),  and  if  the  amount  of  water  be  considerable  and  there  be  no  back 
vent  syphonage  is  liable  to  occur,  as  already  stated.  With  the  back  vent  (E),  the 
water  receding  from  the  crown  of  the  trap  (P)  is  followed  down  the  waste  by 
the  air,  which  breaks  the  syphon  and  leaves  the  seal  at  its  normal  height. 

Even  this  trap  is  not  altogether  sure,  as  the  vent  pipe  may  become  choked  with 
grease  or  other  matter  so  as  to  become  useless.  To  obviate  this  an  improved 
“S”  trap  has  been  devised  (see  Fig.  40).  The  “jug  trap”  shown  in  the  same 
cut  is  an  unvented  lead  contrivance,  which  is  reasonably  safe  from  the  fact  that 
the  bulk  of  the  water  held  in  it  is  hard  to  syphon. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  extra  expense  of  piping  occasioned  by  the  back-vent 
system  (see  fig.  42),  the  manufacturers  have  placed  on  the  market  several 
so-called  non-syphoning  traps  (see  Fig.  41).  A consists  in  the  use  of  a glass  globe 
through  which  the  workings  of  the  trap 
may  be  seen.  B has  a glass  bottom, 
and  the  rubber  ball,  while  driven  down- 
ward by  the  outflow  of  water,  resumes 
its  position  as  this  ceases  and  closes 
the  mouth  of  the  pipe.  1 his  is  sup- 
posed to  break  the  syphonic  action  and 
also  to  prevent  the  backing  up  of  water 
from  the  waste  pipe.  C and  D have 
extending  “lips”  which  are  supposed  to  cut  the  syphonic  flow.  All  traps  should 
have  a clean  out  (generally  located  in  the  bottom)  so  that  solid  matter  may  be 
removed  when  necessary.  It  is  well  to  inspect  these  frequently. 

The  grease  trap  is  a special  form  of  trap  used  for  kitchen  sinks,  which  pre- 
vents the  hot  grease  from  getting  into  the  main  and  in  hardening  choke  the  passage. 


Fig.  41.  Types  of  the  non  syphoning  trap 


22  4 


The  Country  House 


This  is  an  important  feature  and  should  be  borne  in  mind.  Traps  are  usually  of 
the  following  sizes:  For  water  closets,  about  4 inches;  for  slop  sink,  kitchen 

sink  and  washtubs,  2 inches;  for  other 
fixtures,  1-2-  inches. 

Having  considered  the  trap,  let  us 
look  at  the  more  complex  system  as 
necessitated  by  some  local  laws  (see 
Fig.  42).  The  main  soil  pipe  (A)  is  of 
iron,  4 inches  in  diameter,  and  extends 
from  the  house  drain  below  the  cellar 
level  straight  upward  through  the  roof. 
The  main  waste  pipe  (B)  is  erected  in 
the  same  manner  and  serves  the  same 
office  for  the  liquid  wastes.  It  varies 
in  size  from  2 to  3 inches,  according  to 
the  number  of  branch  connections,  and 
may  be  omitted  in  favour  of  the  main 
soil  pipe  in  a more  condensed  system. 
The  main  vent  pipes  (C)  run  parallel  to 
the  two  foregoing  as  closely  as  possible 
and  join  them  above  and  below  the 
fixtures  connections  at  X and  Y.  Con- 
nected to  these  two  mains  are  the 
branch  waste  pipes  (D)  and  the  branch 
vent  pipes  (E),  the  former  of  which  is 
attached  lower  and  the  latter  higher 
than  the  fixtures  from  which  they  lead. 
The  branch  waste  should  have  at  least 
a pitch  of  \ inch  to  the  foot  in  its  flat  run.  Where  the  closet  is  removed  to  a short 
distance  from  the  main  soil  pipe,  it  is  connected  to  the  Y by  a short  length  termed 
the  branch  soil  pipe  (W),  which  should  have  the  same  pitch  as  the  branch  wastes. 
Where  it  is  possible,  the  branch  wastes  and  vents,  as  well  as  house  traps  (J) 
and  the  intersection  of  the  mains  with  house  drain,  should  have  clean-outs  with 
screw  caps  conveniently  located. 

It  will  be  noted  that  traps  are  attached  to  all  fixtures  except  the  closet 
(which  is  its  own  trap),  and  each  trap  taps  both  the  soil  or  waste  and  the  main  vent. 
It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  back-vent  the  closet,  although  this  is  done  to 
cover  the  law. 

I he  house  drain  (L)  has  the  usual  pitch  of  branch  waste  pipes,  and  con- 
nects with  the  mains  through  \ joints  inclined  toward  the  pitch  of  the  pipe. 
The  trap  (I),  located  just  inside  the  wall  of  the  house  through  which  the  house 
drain  passes  to  connect  with  the  sewer,  prevents  the  entry  of  gas  into  the  house 
system  from  the  outside.  Back  of  this  trap  is  attached  the  fresh-air  inlet  (I), 
which,  from  its  frequent  tendency  to  serve  as  a vent,  should  be  located  well  away 
from  the  house.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  house  the  cellar  window  area  is 
drained  by  P,  and  the  leaders  from  the  roof  with  this  pass  through  the  house 


A shower  bath  with  porcelain  basin  and  marble  back  in  eontin 
uation  of  the  wainscotting 


Plumbing 


225 


wall  and  tap  the  house  drain.  This  connection  is  protected  by  a trap,  a precaution 
which  should  always  be  taken  in  like  cases  where  the  house  drain  is  thus  entered. 

1 he  waste  from  the  refrigerator  should  not  enter  the  house  drain,  as  it  adds 
one  more  possible  source  of  trouble,  and  is  not  at  all  necessary,  as  the  water 
discharged  is  harmless.  It  should  empty  into  the  cellar  sink,  and  may  be  con- 
nected with  the  overflow  pipe  from  the  attic  tank  if  convenient. 

The  system  which  avoids  the  use  of  the  back  vent  and  relies  on  the  non- 
syphoning trap  as  a protection,  is  shown  in  Fig.  34.  As  the  ordinary  country 
house  may  connect  with  a cesspool,  usually  located  at  the  back  of  the  house, 


A.  Soil  line 

B.  Main  waste 

C.  Main  vent 


Fig.  42.  Section  showing  the  installation  of  the  back-vent  system 

n.  Branch  water  pipes  G.  Removable  tap  screws  .1.  House  trap  M.  Branch  soil 

E.  Branch  vent  H.  Cap  K.  House  sewer  N.  Screw  cap 

I*.  Rainwater  leader  I.  Fresh  air  inlet  L.  House  drain  P.  Area  drains 


T.  Mouth  of  house  drain 

V.  Water  seal 

W.  Branch  soil  pipe 


226  The  Country  House 

where  are  also  the  kitchen,  laundry,  bathroom,  etc.,  the  house  drain  is  practically 
non-existing  in  many  cases.  It  has  the  same  arrangement  in  its  connections,  ex- 
cepting that  each  branch  waste  taps  the  soil  main  independently.  This  soil 
pipe  is  carried  through  the  peak  of  an  attic  dormer  and  then  hooded,  both  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  weather  and  to  hide  its  ugly  length  of  painted  iron. 

This  system  has  a strong  advocate  in  Mr.  William  Paul  Gerhard,  C.E.,  who 
believes  in  the  simplicity  of  plumbing  and  considers  the  back-vent  system  a needless 

waste  of  money  and 
incurring  of  new 
risks.  In  his  inter- 
esting  pamphlet, 
“Plumbing  Simpli- 
fied,” he  says: 
“Branch  pipe  ven- 
tilation is  carried 
much  too  far;  that 
instead  of  giving 
positive  security,  it 
creates  new  and 
sometimes  „ serious 
dangers.  ...  It 
increases  the  num- 
ber of  pipe  joints 
and  there- 
fore  increases  the 
danger  of  leakage 
at  the  joints.  . . . 

Trap  vents  attached 
to  the  horns  of  por- 
celain fixtures,  such  as  water  closets,  often  lead,  in  case  of  settlement  of  the  build- 
ing, to  the  leakage  of  the  horns,  thus  opening  up  a dangerous  inlet  for  sewer  gas,  the 
crack  olten  remaining  unnoticed  for  years.  . . The  trap-venting  system  affords 

increased  opportunities  for  by-passes  in  case  of  careless  or  ignorant  workmen.” 

He  also  offers  several  points  to  be  observed  in  the  installation  of  the 
simpler  system,  viz.:  “(i).  Always  avoid  those  conditions  which  form 

syphonage.  (2)  Do  not  make  soil  pipes  too  small.  (3)  Never  join  small 
branch  wastes  together,  but  give  each  an  independent  outlet  into  the  larger 
waste  or  soil  pipe.  (4)  Avoid  all  long  dead  ends.  (5)  Use  traps  or  trap 
devices  which  maintain  a water  seal  under  all  ordinary  conditions.” 

Mr.  Gerhard  is  not  the  only  advocate  of  this  system;  the  manufacturers  and 
even  the  plumber  admit  its  good  working  qualities.  As  on  any  other  question 
there  are  two  sides,  we  find  those  for  and  those  against  it,  and  we  regret  to  say 
that  many  of  the  latter  have  nests  to  feather. 

The  whole  thing,  however,  seems  to  hinge  on  the  non-syphoning  trap;  some 
affirm,  others  deny,  its  existence.  When  the  owner  is  left  any  choice  between 
the  two  systems,  and  is  in  doubt,  we  can  only  advise  that  he  convince  himself  one 


An  enamelled  kitchen  sink  with  hot  and  cold  water  and  trapped  waste.  The  overflow  or  waste 
which  empties  into  it  is  after  the  manner  of  the  ice-chest  waste 


Plumbing  227 

way  or  the  other  as  to  the  absolute  effectiveness  of  the  non-syphoning  trap,  and 
choose  accordingly.  As  it  is  still,  unfortunately,  an  open  question,  this  is  the  best 
advice  we  can  give. 

The  rough  piping  is  of  wrought  or  cast  iron,  as  the  case  may  require,  and 
galvanised  or  painted  for  its  protection.  Lead  is  still  used  to  some  extent  for 
small  pipes,  but  its  expense  is  an  item  to  be  considered.  Exposed  pipes  both  for 
waste  and  supply  should  be  of  nickelled  brass,  as  is  all  other  exposed  metal  work. 

The  sizes  of  pipes  are  usually  as  follows:  Mam  and  branch  soil  pipes,  4 

inches;  main  waste  pipe,  2 to  3 inches;  branch  waste  pipes  for  washtubs  and  kitchen 
sink,  2 inches;  for  other  fixtures,  inches;  main  vent  pipes,  long  branch  vent 
pipes  and  branch  vents  for  fixtures  with  traps  larger  than  2 inches,  2 inches;  branch 
vents  for  fixtures  with  traps  2 inches  or  less,  1^  inches.  The  inside  dimension  of 
the  outside  sewer  pipes  should  be  6 inches. 

It  is  best  not  to  seal  up  any  pipe  in  a partition  or  flooring;  there  should  be 
some  way  of  getting  at  it  in  case  of  necessity.  It  may  be  by  means  of  wall  panel, 
false  pilaster  or  beam  or  floor  trap,  but  it  should  exist. 

Having  completed  the  system  up  to  the  point  of  connection  with  fixtures  and 
sewer,  it  is  necessary  to  test  it,  to  prove  to  one’s  satisfaction  that  no  flaws  exist. 
This  should  be  done  by  the  “water  test.”  To  effect  this,  all  openings  but  the  top 
of  the  soil  pipe  at  the  roof  should  be  closed  with  patent  pipe  closers  and  the  system 
filled  with  water  to  the  top;  the  detection  of  leaks  is  then  an  easy  matter,  and 
such  should  be  carefully  repaired  and  again  tested;  repairs  and  tests  should  con- 
tinue until  absolutely  tight. 

When  the  system  is  complete  and  ready  for  final  acceptance  it  should 
undergo  another  test,  the  “peppermint  test.”  Essence  of  peppermint  having  been 
mixed  with  a pail  of  water,  the  mixture  is  poured  down  through  the  soil  and  vent 
mains  from  the  roof,  using  a bucketful  for  each  main.  Someone  who  has  not 
been  near  the  peppermint  or  its  mixing  should  then  go  carefully  over  the  entire 
system  to  detect  any  odour  which  may  leak  through  after  the  application.  If 
repairs  have  to  be  made  the  test  should  be  repeated  after  each  attempt  at  rectifica- 
tion. A satisfactory  tour  should  detect  no  odour,  hence  the  work,  as  far  as  its 
tightness  is  concerned,  should  be  accepted.  Under  no  circumstance  should  the 
peppermint  be  brought  into  the  house,  as  it  will  permeate  everything  and  render 
its  usefulness  void.  Care  in  this  direction  may  save  much  trouble  and  loss  of  time. 


House  at  Merion,  Pa.  Gothic  design  in  random,  quarry  faced 
ashlar.  Wm.  L.  Price,  architect 


Nearly  concealed  by  cedars  and  ampelopsis.  This  storage  tank  is  enclosed  in  a shell  of  rough 
field  stone.  How  different  from  many  of  the  ugly  tanks  that  disfigure  the  country 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Water  Supply  and  Drainage 

ROBABLY  no  two  questions  are  of  more  importance  to  the 
house  builder  as  an  individual  or  more  momentous  to  the 
general  public  than  those  of  water  supply  and  drainage. 
1 heir  seriousness  is  realised  when  one  considers  the  various 
mammoth  public  systems  which  have  been  constructed  in 
various  parts  of  tbe  country. 

It  should  be  understood  at  the  start  that,  though  the  more 
simple  problems  may  be  taken  in  band  by  the  owner,  yet  more  complicated 
cases  require  the  services  of  an  expert.  It  stands  to  reason  that  any  problem, 
whether  simple  or  complex,  is  better  for  professional  supervision,  but  often  the 
purse  will  not  allow  of  this.  There  are  many  firms  that  make  a business  of  the 
water  supply  and  sewerage  of  the  country  estate,  furnishing  expert  knowledge  and 
necessary  labour.  We  generally. think  of  a community  numerous  enough  to  have 
public  service  as  being  condensed  into  a comparatively  small  land  area  per  family. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  a locality  where  the  public  service  does  not  exist,  we  expect 
to  find  more  land  to  each  estate,  giving  the  private  individual  more  room  to 
manoeuvre.  It  is  a mistake  to  build  a large  house  on  a small  lot  under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  private  system;  they  are  rarely  perfect. 

1 he  most  difficult  situation  is  that  of  the  transition  stage,  in  which  the 
community  has  in  reality  outgrown  the  private  system.  Parties  locating  in  such 

228 


229 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 

a place  should  secure  land  enough  to  protect  themselves  against  outside  contamina- 
tion. Although  the  first  outlay  may  be  more  than  the  individual  cares  to  carry 
permanently,  yet  as  a safeguard  it  is  worth  its  price,  and  further  disposal  can  be 
planned  for  and  consummated  at  such  time  as  public  service  and  the  increase  of 
taxes  and  land  valuation  make  it  advisable. 

Of  late  years  the  importance  of  these  two  has  been  more  and  more  realised. 
The  engineer  makes  them  his  especial  study,  and  the  inventive  rmnd  turns  more 
and  more  to  mechanical  contrivances  for  their  perfection. 

Water  in  its  normal  state  consists  of  two  parts  hydrogen  and  one  part  oxygen 
gas.  These  two  gases  in  combination  lose  their  gaseous  form  and  become  at 
once  a new  substance.  This  is  no  sooner  in  existence  than  it  loses  its  normal 
condition  by  the  absorption  of  foreign  matter.  Leaving  the  form  of  vapour  and 
changing  into  rain,  it  absorbs  from  the  atmosphere  such  purity  or  impurity  as  it 
may  contain,  and  falling  on  the  earth  and  filtering  into  it  draws  in  turn  from 
this  source  such  properties  as  it  may  dispense.  Although  water  absorbs  im- 
purities, as  we  have  already  stated,  it  also  purifies  itself  by  filtration  through 
cleansing  soils,  which  in  turn  take  up  the  infectious  matter. 

As  the  modern  public  service  is  usually  constructed  under  the  supervision  of  a 
competent  engineer,  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  it  will  be  perfected  as  far  as  knowl- 
edge and  skill  can  carry  it.  Much  depends  upon  the  natural  resources,  and  even 
the  most  skilful  engineer  is  limited  in  the  entire  success  of  his  undertaking.  A sys- 
tem may  be  complete  and  draw  upon  water  that  is,  owing  to  existing  conditions, 
not  of  the  best.  With  this  in  mind,  it  is  well  for  the  prospective  purchaser  to  go 
over  the  ground  thoroughly  and  assure  himself  by  personal  inspection  and  expert 
analysis  that  he  is  perfectly  safe  in  this  direction. 

No  country  house  is  desirable  as  a residence,  either  permanently  or  tem- 
porarily, which  has  not  at  least  a good  well  or  an  unfailing  spring  of  pure  water 
handy,  and  in  such  a position  as  to  be  free  from  all  danger  of  contamination  by 
surface  water  flowing  into  it,  or  by  impurities  reaching  its  source  through  porous 
soil  strata. 

The  first  action  of  the  water  falling  upon  the  earth  is,  in  obedience  to  the  laws 
of  gravity,  to  seek  a lower  level.  1 his  it  does  by  flowing  over  the  inclined  surface, 
or  by  filtering  through  porous  soil.  After  leaving  the  surface  of  the  ground  it 
proceeds  until  it  strikes  some  impenetrable  strata,  over  which  it  flows  seeking  an 
outlet.  Commonly  it  is  this  water  en  route  which  is  the  source  of  supply  for  the 
ordinary  well,  although  springs  are  struck  frequently  in  well  digging  and  the  exist- 
ing spring  is  converted  into  a well  by  excavation. 

Water  flowing  over  an  impermeable  stratum  often  reaches  a pocket  or  basin, 
which  becomes  filled  and  thus  causes  the  water  to  seek  an  outlet  through  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Thus  springs  are  formed.  Large  springs  or  small  ones  in  suffi- 
cient number,  coming  to  the  surface  in  natural  land  basins  or  valleys,  form  ponds 
and  streams.  These  also  receive  water  from  the  various  watersheds,  much  to  the 
detriment  of  their  purity. 

It  is  difficult  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  water  and  its  fitness  for  drinking  or 
general  domestic  use  from  the  mere  facts  of  looks  and  taste.  A person  with  no 
knowledge  of  chemistry  should  not  attempt  to  settle  this  question.  It  is  always 


230  The  Country  House 

best  to  have  it  analysed  by  a chemist  who  is  familiar  with  such  work.  Water  has 
been  taken  from  some  of  the  juniper  swamps  of  Virginia  which,  while  decidedly 
doubtful  as  to  looks  and  taste,  proved  to  be  perfectly  healthy  and  harmless,  while 
numerous  examples  of  clear,  cool,  sparkling  water  contained  poisonous  qualities 
of  the  most  dangerous  sort. 

As  far  as  tangible  impurities  are  concerned  (and  by  this  we  mean  those  that 
are  unsightly  rather  than  dangerous),  they  can  be  eliminated  by  the  use  of  charcoal 
or  iron-stone  filters.  I hese  filters  should  be  cleansed  frequently.  Although  slightly 
impure  water  may  be  filtered,  it  is  not  best  to  trifle  too  much  with  it.  Your  chemist 
will  at  once  tell  you  what  you  have  to  deal  with,  and  a source  of  excessive  impurity 
should  be  abandoned.  It  is  more  with  the  knowledge  that  contamination  may 
occur  after  the  supply  system  has  been  working  perfectly  for  a considerable  time 
that  we  speak  of  the  filter  at  all.  Purification  by  any  other  method  than  filters 

should  be  done  by  one  understanding 
chemistry.  This  being  the  case,  its  claim 
on  one’s  attention  is  brief. 

The  well  is  a shaft  by  which  water- 
bearing strata  are  reached.  Wells  are 
of  three  kinds;  viz.,  dug,  bored  or  artes- 
ian, and  the  driven  or  drive  well.  The 
ordinary  well  of  the  country  farmhouse 
is  located  midway  between  the  kitchen 
sink  and  the  pigpen,  with  a preference 
one  way  or  the  other  as  the  case  may 
be.  From  one  or  both  of  these  sources 
of  filth  the  well  receives  more  or  less 
contagious  matter  until  something  hap- 
pens. The  remainder  of  the  family  are 
consoled  with  the  assurance  that  it  is 
the  will  of  the  Lord.  Later  the  “ Lord  ” 
claims  more  victims,  and  all  is  still. 
Religion  is  a beautiful  thing.  It  seems, 
however,  decidedly  out  of  place  and  a 
shirking  of  responsibility  to  lay  the 
deadly  workings  of  a filthy  well  to  the 
Almighty.  Of  course  it  is  far  easier  to 
assume  that  it  is  His  wisdom  than  to 
take  the  trouble  to  ascertain  that  it  is 
one’s  own  consummate  stupidity.  There 
are  those  who  awake  to  the  truth  after  the  evil  is  done,  but  how  much  better 
would  it  have  been  to  have  taken  proper  precaution  and  averted  it  in  the  beginning. 

The  fact  that  the  well  is  separated  from  the  sink  drain  and  the  barn  by  a 
considerable  distance  means  nothing  more  than  that  the  evil  may  be  merely  delayed. 
There  are  cases,  it  is  true,  where  wells  under  such  conditions  have  remained  pure 
for  years,  and  are,  for  that  matter,  still  pure,  but  that  is  not  the  fault  of  the  builder; 
it  is  just  pure  unadulterated  luck — nothing  more. 


Detail  of  the  rustic  well  house  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 


231 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 


The  ordinary  farmhouse,  as  you  will  remember,  sits  on  a side  hill  toward  the 
road,  with  the  barn  in  the  rear  and  on  higher  ground.  This  is  the  usual  formula, 
although  it  may  be  reversed,  much  to  its  credit  and  safety.  It  does  not  follow, 
however,  that  the 
general  slope  of  the 
land  follows  in  any 
way  the  impervi- 
ous under  stratum, 
although  it  has  that 
tendency.  It  may, 
on  the  contrary, 
pitch  in  exactly  the 
opposite  direction; 
the  earth’s  strata  do 
queer  things.  It  is 
for  these  reasons 
that  it  is  advisable  to 
make  some  definite 
investigations  as  to 
the  general  charac- 
ter and  geological 
conditions  of  the 
proposed  building 
plot.  Besides  dig- 
ging and  levelling,  it 
is  possible  to  get 
much  aid  from  the 
Government  geolog- 
ical charts,  if  any  of 
the  locality  in  ques- 
t i o n exist.*  Of 
course  these  do  not 
cover  the  entire 

country  by  any  means,  but  rather  that  portion  which  is  old  in  formation  or 
interesting  from  a geological  point  of  view.  On  general  principles,  it  is  best 
that  the  well  be  located  on  as  high  ground  as  is  possible  and  the  cesspool  on 
the  lowest. 

The  common  open  well,  excavated  by  digging,  originated  back  in  remote 
antiquity  Some  of  these  old  examples  are  most  remarkable,  extending  to  great 
depths,  often  through  solid  rock,  with  winding  pathways  descending  spirally  to 
the  water  level.  Often  these  pathways  are  of  sufficient  width  to  admit  of  the 
passage  of  a donkey  or  a horse.  Joseph’s  Well,  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  is  297  feet  deep. 

In  most  localities  water  can  he  easily  obtained  within  a fairly  reasonable  dis- 
tance of  the  surface.  Ordinarily  the  depth  at  which  a water-bearing  stratum 
may  be  reached  does  not  exceed  20  or  30  feet.  In  case  of  the  wells  being  dug  on 


A rustic  well  house  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 


* These  sheets  can  be  procured  from  the  Director  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 


232  The  Country  House 

a gravelly  knoll  or  where  the  formation  is  such  as  to  bring  the  water-bearing 
stratum  farther  from  the  surface,  the  depth  of  80  feet  is  often  reached. 

In  selecting  a site  for  the  well  there  are  two  sources  of  contamination  to  be 
borne  in  mind,  surface  drainage  and  subsoil  filtration.  The  ordinary  hole  in  the 
ground  is  very  liable  to  become,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  a catch  basin  for 
surface  drainage,  to  say  nothing  of  the  impurities  that  find  access  to  it  through  the 
subsoil.  For  the  above  reasons  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  location  of  the 

well  should  be  as  far  as  possible  from 
barnyard,  privies,  cesspools  and  all  other 
possible  sources  of  contamination,  not 
only  your  own  but  those  of  your  neigh- 
bours. Be  sure,  too,  that  the  location 
be  in  the  uphill  direction.  Where  the  lot 
of  land  is  small  or  the  buildings  crowded 
together,  the  well  problem  becomes  a 
most  difficult  and  serious  consideration. 
Not  only  is  it  close  to  the  local  source  of 
contamination,  but  the  extreme  handi- 
ness of  the  neighbour  and  his  little  prob- 
lem makes  this  all  the  more  complicated. 
Simple  filtration  through  permeable  soil 
will  reduce  a certain  amount  of  impurity 
for  a limited  time,  but  as  the  soil  is  soon 
likely  to  become  clogged  and  choked 
with  it,  this  is  no  absolute  safeguard 
from  pollution.  It  is  readily  seen  from 
this  why  a good  well  may  become  suddenly  affected  from  various  causes  which 
may  have  been  operating  without  apparent  effect  for  years. 

As  a rule,  wells  sunk  in  sand  lying  over  an  impervious  stratum,  especially  clay, 
if  not  of  considerable  depth  do  not  afford  much  water.  Often  a fair  quantity 
may  be  obtained,  but  the  quality  is  very  apt  to  be  bad.  This  is  due  in  a measure 
to  the  extreme  porousness  of  the  soil  and  its  tendency  to  absorb  surface  water  with 
but  little  chance  of  effective  filtration  before  it  reaches  the  impervious  stratum. 
The  best  wells  are  those  which  are  sunk  through  impervious  strata  to  pervious 
ones  below.  The  water  in  quantity  and  quality  is  generally  excellent.  If  such  a 
well  is  properly  constructed,  it  should  eliminate  all  chance  of  contamination  from 
surface  water  and  many  of  the  chances  of  menace  from  other  sources.  An 
effective  method  of  construction  would  be  to  lay  the  well  below  the  impervious 
stratum  dry  and  the  portion  above  and  through  the  impervious  strata  in  Portland 
cement,  carefully  pointed  inside  and  thoroughly  plastered  outside.  To  re-enforce 
this  a bank  of  clay  may  be  added,  care  being  taken  to  see  that  it  is  properly 
“puddled,”  or,  in  other  words,  pure  clay  is  filled  into  the  trench  about  the  well 
in  small  pieces  and  in  small  quantities  at  a time.  In  the  intervals  the  clay  is 
“puddled”  by  adding  water,  which  tends  to  soften  and  reduce  it  to  a solid, 
compact  mass.  This  bank  of  clay,  together  with  the  tight  wall,  will  prevent 
surface  water  from  entering  (see  Fig.  43). 


pervious  strata  to  pervious  water-bearing  strata  below 


233 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 


The  well  which  is  sunk  through  pervious  strata  should  have  a tight  wall  to 
the  depth  of  the  outlet  of  supply.  Often  brick  is  substituted  for  stone,  such 
being  laid  fairly  thick — say  12  inches  at  the  least.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  has  any 
other  advantage  over  stone  than  that  of  presenting  a smoother  surface;  hence  it  is 
easier  to  clean.  As  this  last  consideration  is  of  considerable  importance,  the  brick- 
lined  wall  is  worthy  of  consideration. 

In  the  case  of  all  wells  the  masonry  should  be  carried  above  the  grade,  to 
allow  for  the  making  of  a slight  pitch  away  from  it  to  shed  the  immediate  surface 
water.  Nor  should  there  be  any  permanent  woodwork  inside  a well;  its  tendency 
is  to  attract  and  shelter  animal  life,  as  well  as  to  affect  the  water  by  decay.  A 
well  is  usually  round  in  construction;  this  form,  receiving  the  equal  pressure  of 
the  soil  on  all  sides,  is  less  liable  to  collapse  than  any  other  form.  Wells  should 
be  covered  to  protect  them  from  falling  refuse  and  dust,  but  they  should  at  the 
same  time  have  ample  ventilation. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  any  hard-and-fast  rules  to  govern  the  locating  of  a 
well,  but,  as  already  stated,  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  it  on  as  high  ground  as 
may  be  practical,  that  the  danger  from  surface  inflow  and  substrata  infection  may 
be  lessened.  If  your 

neighbour  possesses  * ••  * 

a good  well,  some- 
thing may  be  learned 
from  that,  perhaps, 
and  if  it  be  located 
near  your  line  and 
water  is  plentiful,  it 
is  not  a bad  idea  to 
locate  near  it.  Some- 


tunes 

close 


a spring  in 
proximity  to 
your  land,  either 
above  or  below  it, 
may  be  intercepted 
by  a well.  In  such  a 
case,  if  the  water  be 
good,  your  problem 
is  solved.  If  there  be 
no  visible  evidence 
to  go  by,  the  only 
thing  to  do  is  to  steer 
clear  of  neighbour- 
ing cesspools  and 
dig.  The  chances 
are  that  you  will 
strike  good  water. 

Wells  require 
considerable  care 


Windmill  on  farm  of  Thomas  W.  Lawson.  Esq.,  at  Egypt,  Mass.  It  modifies  the  Dutch 
type,  and  the  difference  will  be  emphasised  by  the  growth  of  the  Crimson  Ramblers.  Cost 
about  $3,500.  Coolidge  & Carlton,  architects 


234 


The  Country  House 

and  attention;  they  do  not  take  care  of  themselves,  although  they  are  generally 
left  to  that  fate.  Anything  falling  into  them  should  be  removed  at  once.  I hey 
require  frequent  cleaning,  as  filth  accumulates  rapidly.  The  slimy  matter  found 
frequently  adhering  to  the  inside  of  wells  is  a true  fungoid  growth,  which  is  active 
poison  when  taken  into  the  system. 

To  the  end  that  the  well  and  general  health  he  near  perfection,  it  is  best  that 
all  animal  or  vegetable  matter  should  be  cleaned  from  around  it  and  composted 
at  some  distance  off.  The  immediate  vicinity  of  a well  should  be  kept  clean. 

The  well  offers  excellent  chances  for  artistic  treatment.  Many  of  the  old 
Italian  well  curbs  are  very  beautiful.  There  is  a chance,  too,  in  the  old-fashioned 
well  sweep.  Where  old  models  are  followed  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  general 
principles  of  cleanliness  and  utility,  and  these,  according  to  modern  ideas,  re- 
quire more  or  less  modification  of  the  originals. 

The  cost  of  a well  varies  so  much  under  differing  conditions  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  any  definite  figures.  It  depends  upon  the  size,  depth,  character 
of  soil,  the  price  of  wall  material  and  cost  of  labour.  I he  average  well,  under 
favourable  circumstances,  might  be  built  for  from  $50  to  $75. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  greater  depth  than  the  ordinary  limit  of  the 
dug  well,  the  artesian  well  is  resorted  to.  I his  is  bored  by  special  machinery  and 
expert  labour,  and  is  rather  costly.  Of  the  large  number  of  wells  of  this  sort,  the 
majority  yield  abundantly,  although  the  objection  lies  in  the  difficulty  of  striking 
the  right  sort  of  water.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  rocks  of  the  paleozoic  series 
extend  in  a nearly  horizontal  stratum  over  most  of  North  America,  the  geological 
structure  is  very  favourable  to  this  sort  of  well.  In  form  it  is  an  ordinary  open  well 
dug  to  the  depth  of  the  impervious  stratum.  I Ins  stratum  is  bored  through  and  the 
boring  continued  until  a water-bearing  stratum  is  reached.  1 he  water  then  rises 
through  the  boring  into  the  well,  which  acts  as  a cistern.  4 he  cost  of  this  well  is 
usually  reckoned  at  $6  per  foot  for  a depth  of  from  200  to  300  feet.  As  the  depth 
increases  so  does  the  cost,  so  that  for  a depth  of  600  feet  $7. 50  per  foot  is  reckoned. 

1 lie  driven  well  is  a small  and  home-made  edition  of  the  artesian  system.  It 
consists  of  several  lengths  of  piping  which  are  connected  one  to  the  other  as  each 
is  driven  down.  The  entering  length  is  provided  with  perforations  near  the  end  for 
the  admission  of  water,  and  is  tipped  with  a sharp  point  or  shoe. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  best  way  to  drive  them  is  with  a sledge 
hammer,  but  if  this  is  used  directly  on  the  end  of  the  pipe  it  is  apt  to  splinter  or 
destroy  the  joint.  I bis  is  easily  provided  against  by  the  use  of  a short  piece  of 
joist,  through  which  and  near  one  end  a framing  spike  has  been  driven.  \\  bile 
one  person  holds  the  joist  over  the  end  of  the  pipe,  with  the  spike  within  the 
bore,  another  can  use  the  sledge  without  much  danger  of  damaging  the  connec- 
tion. The  object  of  the  spike  is  to  prevent  the  joist  from  “jumping”  or  sliding 
off.  An  iron  jacket  or  collar  comes  for  this  purpose,  which  is  screwed  on  to  the 
pipe;  being  thus  firm,  it  is  apt  to  injure  the  threading  in  the  shock  of  the  blow. 

In  light,  open  soil  this  well  can  be  driven  and  water  (if  it  exists)  secured  within 
an  hour.  In  a rocky  soil,  howe^r,  it  is  absolutely  useless.  Its  depth  is  about 
that  of  the  open  well  and,  like  it,  it  is  subject  to  organic  impurities  through  the 
source.  It  is  easily  protected  from  surface  inflow  and  has  some  advantages  over 


The  kind  of  outlay  best  fitted  to  the  dunes  and  sand  stretches  of  the  coast.  Cirosvenur  Atterbury,  architect 


236  The  Country  House 

the  open  well.  The  cost  of  the  driven  well  is  but  slight,  being  mostly  in  the 
cost  of  piping  and  labour.  1 his  might  be  considered  roughly  as  from  $10  to 
$ 20 , outside  of  the  pump. 

Authorities  seem  to  differ  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  springs  and  wells;  some 
prefer  one,  some  the  other.  1 his  point  being  in  dispute,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
their  merits  are  about  equal.  It  is  common  to  consider  the  “sparkling  spring” 
as  the  personification  of  purity.  Appearances  are  deceitful,  however.  It  is  fully 
as  open  to  contamination  as  any  other  source  of  water  supply.  Rain  water  in 
its  passage  through  the  lower  atmosphere  is  liable  to  absorb  gases,  which  are  not 
always  eliminated  by  its  passage  through  the  soil.  As  impurities  are  very  numerous 
and  their  effect  upon  the  water  varied,  the  most  complete  analysis  alone  will  settle 
the  question  of  its  purity. 

It  is  perhaps  well  to  consider  the  spring  as  a source  of  supply  for  a well,  and 
acting  on  this  basis  to  excavate  and  wall  up  in  the  manner  of  a well,  to  the  end 
of  the  better  protection  and  preservation.  Ordinarily  the  spring  comes  to  the 
surface  in  some  depression  of  the  ground,  and  when  left  thus  in  its  normal  con- 
dition cannot  fail  to  suffer  from  the  fouling  influences  of  surface  inflow.  There 
are  frequently  cases  where  a false  stratum  of  clay  may  be  constructed  about  it 
and  under  the  top  soil,  to  protect  it  from  surface  water  which  would  otherwise  soak 
into  it  through  the  latter. 

If  a spring  is  copious  enough  to  overflow  after  being  harnessed  to  the  general 
supply,  measures  should  be  taken  to  save  at  least  a portion  of  the  surplus  for 
purposes  of  fire  emergency,  hose  supply  and  general  reserve.  T his  can  often 
be  accomplished  by  collecting  it  in  a suitable  reservoir  by  means  of  a ram.  If 
an  overflow  still  exists,  it  can  be  utilised  in  various  ways  as  an  aquatic  feature  of 
the  garden  or  general  outlay. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  ponds  and  streams  are  not  particularly 
desirable  as  supply  sources  for  the  private  system.  I his  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
considerable  amount  of  undesirable  surface  drainage  from  the  surrounding  water- 
sheds. The  washings  from  barnyards  and  farms  in  general  are  not  calculated 
to  add  to  the  standard  of  purity,  while  swamps  and  decomposed  animal  matter 
are  anything  but  wholesome.  Of  the  two,  the  stream  is  perhaps  least  desirable, 
owing  to  the  vast  and  varied  amount  of  surface  drainage  it  receives.  To  be  of 
any  use  as  a source  of  water  supply,  it  should  be  kept  free  from  dead  trees  and 
animal  impurities  as  far  as  practical.  In  the  case  of  a small  pond  situated  on  a 
considerable  estate,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  make  it  an  ideal  supply  system.  In 
this  case  it  is  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  public  one. 

Wherever  the  source  of  supply  is  lower  than  the  height  to  which  it  is  desirable 
to  carry  it  one  must  resort  to  a storage  system.  Its  height  in  any  case  should  ex- 
ceed that  of  the  highest  outlet  desired,  so  that  the  water  may  run  with  some  free- 
dom and  force.  As  a protection  against  fire,  where  a hose  is  to  be  used,  this  extra 
height  should  be  considerable  (say  two  or  three  times  the  height  of  the  house),  as 
water  ejected  from  the  nozzle  of  a hose  depends  for  its  carrying  power  on  the 
amount  of  pressure  back  of  it.  In  other  words,  it  will  not  rise  to  near  the  height 
if  flowing  free  that  it  would  if  confined  in  a pipe.  This  will  be  readily  understood 
when  we  consider  that  the  fire  department  of  a large  city  uses  an  engine  to  pump 


o 


238  The  Country  House 

its  water  to  an  effective  height.  It  is  not  desirable  to  use  water  from  any  small 
storage  vessel  for  drinking  purposes,  as  it  becomes  stale  and  often  tastes  of  the 
vessel;  such  water  is  only  fit  for  general  household  use. 

The  reservoir,  as  we  understand  it  in  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term,  is  a 
receptacle  of  some  size,  usually  made  with  masonry  walls  reinforced  by  earth 

embankments.  On  account  of  size  and 
expense  of  construction  it  would  hardly 
come  within  the  consideration  of  this 
work,  but  is  rather  a part  of  the  public 
system.  But,  as  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  natural  conditions  of  land  and 
supply  make  its  consideration  of  some 
moment,  we  will  speak  of  it  briefly. 

1 he  ideal  form  is  that  of  the  oval, 
with  vertical  retaining  walls,  having  a 
slight  batter  along  the  shore  to  10  feet 
deep  or  more.  From  the  base  of  this 
wall  the  bottom  slopes  gradually  to  a 
depth  of  about  20  feet,  at  which  depth 
it  should  be  uniformly  level.  These 
dimensions  might  apply  to  a width  of 
50  feet;  in  a smaller  affair  they  could  be 
reduced  proportionally.  The  masonry 
should  be  of  considerable  strength  and 
laid  in  cement,  the  bottom  being  of 
cement  also.  It  is  always  better  that  the  reservoir  should  be  built  in  two  com- 
partments, making  it  possible  to  draw  off  the  water  and  cleanse  one  compart- 
ment without  interfering  with  the  other.  As  we  have  already  stated,  natural 
conditions  have  much  to  do  with  their  desirability;  thus  they  may  be  dug  into  an 
elevation  or  level  stretch,  or  enlarged  from  a natural  depression  of  the  land. 

The  more  common  form  of  private  storage  is  the  tank  system.  1 his  may 
be  made  in  several  different  ways.  The  ordinary  iron  standpipe,  the  largest  and 
most  expensive  type,  makes  an  excellent  storage.  Its  natural  ugliness  may  be 
hidden  by  enclosing  it  in  a wooden  or  masonry  shell,  and  with  excellent  results. 

1 his  shell  should  not  touch  the  standpipe;  it  should  be  free  and  independent  of 
it.  I his,  first,  to  relieve  it  of  wind  pressure,  and  second,  that  it  may  be  gotten  at 
readily  for  painting  and  repairs.  This  tank,  however,  is  seldom  used,  as  the  wooden 
tank  is  now  made  in  large  sizes,  and  is  both  better  and  cheaper  than  the  iron. 

I he  wooden  railroad  tank,  an  immense  cask  with  iron  hoops,  is  used  con- 
siderably, and  is  excellent.  Built  to  perform  just  this  sort  of  work,  it  is 
admirably  adapted  to  the  country  house.  Properly  roofed  in,  and  its  elevating 
construction  enclosed,  it  is  far  from  being  unsightly.  These  tanks  are  built  to 
hold  from  1, 000  to  120,000  gallons,  and  are  preferably  of  pine  or  red  cypress.  For 
Northern  climates,  however,  it  is  claimed  that  cypress,  owing  to  its  coarse  grain,  is 
very  apt  to  become  water  soaked.  What  the  frost  and  cold  may  do  to  this  under 
such  conditions  is  readily  surmised. 


Supply  tank  and  lookout  at  Rowley,  Mass.  Egyptian  motive 


239 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 

A small  and  inexpensive  storage  tank  may  be  constructed  by  the  elevation 
of  several  Tarragona  wine  casks  on  an  enclosed  platform.  These  should  be 
connected,  near  their  bottoms,  by  short  lengths  of  pipe. 

As  a precaution  in  case  of  fire  all  storage  tanks  should  be  kept  full.  Their  out- 
let should  be  slightly  raised  above  the  bottom  in  order  that  the  pipes  may  not 
become  clogged  with  possible  settlings.  Ample  ventilation  should  be  afforded 
them,  and  they  should  be  protected  against  the  invasion  of  dirt,  insects,  birds 
and  small  animals.  They  should  be  cleansed  frequently;  this  is  not  the  least  of 
important  considerations.  All  storage  tanks  should  have  a visible  register,  which 
shall  show  plainly  at  all  times  the  amount  of  water  they  contain. 

To  give  some  idea  as  to  the  cost  of  modern  tanks  and  windmills,  the  fol- 
lowing will  suggest  roughly:  An  outfit  consisting  of  a 12-foot  windmill,  a 5,000- 

gallon  tank,  piping  and  tank  frost-proofed,  windmill  slightly  above  tank,  and  the 
whole  enclosed  with  simple  wocden  house,  might  cost  $500.  The  3,ooo-gallon, 
plain,  frost-proofed  tank,  elevated  to  a height  of  30  feet,  would  cost,  with  wooden 
tower,  about  $350. 

A comparatively  new  system  of  water  storage  and  pressure  is  that  in  which 
compressed  air  is  used  to  effect  the  distribution  of  the  supply.  A circular  tank 
is  placed,  generally  horizontally,  under  the  ground  or  vertically  in  the  cellar.  1 his 
naturally  comes  between  the  source  of  the  supply  and  the  distributing  branches. 
The  tank,  if  placed  under  the  ground,  is  practically  level,  and  of  course  placed 
below  frost.  In  this  position  it  sup- 
plies water  for  both  summer  and  winter 
at  about  the  same  temperature  as  that 
of  the  supply.  The  piping  connections 
are  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  near 
its  ends;  one  line  leads  to  the  house  and 
the  other  to  the  pump  at  the  source  of 
supply.  When  the  tank  is  located  in  the 
cellar  it  is  stood  on  end  as  a usual  thing, 
and  the  inlet  and  outlet  are  entered  near 
the  bottom. 

The  pump  is  a special  contrivance 
which  can  be  used  for  deep  and  shallow 
wells,  bored  or  driven  wells,  and  can  he 
used  to  draw  water  from  a spring  or  lake. 

It  can  be  operated  by  hand  or  by  a wind 
mill  or  any  pumping  engine.  It  is  so 
arranged  that  water  and  air  are  both 
forced  through  the  supply  main  into  the 
tank  and  are  prevented  from  returning 
by  means  of  a check  valve  in  the  pipe. 

As  the  water  rises  in  the  tank  the  air  is  compressed  until  the  former  occupies 
about  three-quarters  of  the  total  capacity.  The  compressed  air  supplies  the  force 
necessary  for  the  distribution  of  water  through  the  house,  and  water  gauges 
determine  the  amount  of  pressure  existing. 


240 


The  Country  House 


feet  high. 


The  tanks  are  made  of  wrought  steel  tested  to  a pressure  of  about  150  pounds 
to  the  square  inch.  It  is  claimed  that  about  10  pounds  pressure  will  deliver  water 
to  the  second  story  under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  that  an  average  pressure 

of  50  pounds  can  be  maintained  by 
pumping  a little  every  day.  A pres- 
sure of  40  pounds  will  deliver  water  to 
points  85  feet  above  the  tank.  It  is 

also  claimed  from  actual  test  that  a 

4 x 24-foot  tank  will  deliver  through  a 
inch  hose  a free  column  of  water  100 
It  is  important  to  remem- 
ber that  the  tank  should  be  fully  large 
enough  to  allow  for  the  loss  of  pressure 
in  the  consumption  of  the  water;  it  is 
necessary  to  refill  the  tank  when  about 
one-half  the  water  has  been  used. 

These  storage  tanks  range  in  capac- 
ity from  about  1 50  gallons  to  13,500  gal- 
lons. The  sizes  which  are  used  for  the 
ordinary  house  are  those  of  from  300 
to  500  gallons.  These  tanks  alone  cost 
from  $75  up,  beside  the  pump  and  its 
connections.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  system  is  not  cheap,  although  it  is 
extremely  simple.  A plant,  consisting  of 
a 5 x 20-foot  tank,  a hot-air  engine  and 
piping  connections  to  several  houses, 
etc.,  in  a small  settlement  has  been  installed  in  one  instance  for  about  $1,000. 
Tanks  may  be  doubled  up  into  a battery,  forming  a storage  of  considerable  size. 

Great  things  are  claimed  for  it,  and  it  seems  to  have  given  satisfaction  so  far 
as  has  been  heard  from.  It  surely  has  the  advantage  of  doing  away  with  some 

of  the  natural  disadvantages  of  the  ordinary  elevated 
tank.  However,  as  it  is  a “growing”  system  as  yet, 
whatever  its  weak  points  may  be,  if  any,  they  will  with- 
out doubt  be  eliminated  in  its  later  perfection. 

Common  rain  water,  owing  to  its  softness, 
is  frequently  used  for  general  purposes.  This  is 
stored  in  cisterns,  located  either  in  the  cellar  or 
on  the  attic  floor.  The  cellar  cistern  is  com- 
monly built  of  brick  and  cement,  and  should 
be  absolutely  tight,  having  openings  only  for 
pump,  water  leaders  and  vent.  It  should  be 
well  protected  from  the  invasion  of  mice  and 
other  animals,  as  well  as  insect  life.  As 
this  form  is  apt  to  cause  dampness,  the  attic  type  should  be  used,  if  possible. 
To  avoid  the  pump,  the  attic  cistern  is  used.  This  should  have  extensive 


W ater  tank  of  the  hacienda  of  Mrs.  Hearst 


Fig.  44.  Section  showing  the  working  of  an 
hydraulic  ram 

a.  Inlet  b.  Outlet  c.  Weighted  valve  d.  Air  chamber 


241 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 

horizontal  area  rather  than  much  depth,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  gutters  must 
be  above  the  height  of  its  extreme  capacity.  1 his  limit  of  capacity  should  be 
established  about  6 inches  below  the  top  of  the  cistern,  and  an  overflow  made  at 
that  height  to  avoid  any  chance  damage  to  ceilings  and  the  like.  This  overflow 
can  lead  to  a cellar  cistern  if  desired.  It  is  safer  to  have  the  cistern  set  on  a 
zinc  base,  which  shall  project  beyond  it  on  all  sides  and  be  turned  up  several 
inches  and  connected  with  a waste  pipe.  This  will  save  considerable  if  the 
cistern  should  leak.  The  tank  is  usually  made  of  2-inch  planking  well  bolted 
together.  The  average  rainfall  in  the  Northern  states  is  about  48  inches  per 
year;  in  the  whole  country,  about  36  per  year.  Considering  that  a roof  of  1,000 
square  feet  would  (in  Philadelphia)  receive  an  average  of  74  gallons  per  day, 
that  8 gallons  per  capita  should  be  allowed,  and  that  one  gallon  contains  231  cubic 
inches,  it  is  easy  to  get  some  idea  as  to  the  size  of  the  cistern  required.  If 
sanitary  appliances  are  to  be  used,  the  amount  required  would  be  fully  twice  the 
ordinary,  if  not  more.  It  is  necessary  that  the  tank  be  cleaned  out  every  three 
months  or  so.  This  is  important. 

Water  is  carried  from  the  source  of  supply  by  two  methods,  gravity  and 
pumping.  When  the  source  is  higher  than  the  required  height  to  which  water  is  to 
be  brought,  the  problem  is  easily  solved  by  gravity.  In  case  the  supply  source  is 
Considerable,  the  water  can  be  forced  to  a higher  tank  by  use  of  the  “ram.”  This 
simple  mechanical 
device,  which  op- 
erates automatically, 
enables  one  to  raise 
a small  quantity  of 
water  by  utilising 
the  force  of  a large 
body  of  water.  It 
takes  advantage  of 
the  impulse  of  a flow 
suddenly  checked 
and  directed  into  the 
desired  channel.  Its 
working  is  easily  ex- 
plained (see  Fig.  44). 

Water  entering  the 
machine  through  the 
pipe  (a)  flows  to  the 
limit  of  the  pipe  and 
finds  an  outlet  above 

the  valve  (c),  which,  when  not  under  pressure,  falls  of  its  own  weight  and  thus 
allows  the  escape.  1 he  water  continues  to  flow  until  its  momentum  is  sufficient 
to  raise  the  valve  (c),  thus  closing  the  outlet.  The  flow,  thus  checked,  rebounds 
and  finds  another  outlet  through  the  valve  in  the  air  chamber  (d)  until  the  valve 
(c)  drops  owing  to  a lack  of  pressure.  The  same  performance  is  then  repeated 
and  becomes  continuous.  The  sudden  impulse  of  water  into  the  said  air  chamber 


242  The  Country  House 

compresses  the  air  in  the  top,  and,  as  the  water  cannot  escape  from  the  chamber 
by  the  valve  through  which  it  entered,  it  is  forced  by  the  compressed  air  through 
the  discharge  pipe  (b),  which  connects  with  the  storage  where  desired.  Thus 
we  see  that  the  water  is  delivered  from  the  air  chamber  in  the  same  manner  as 
when  applied  to  the  pump,  and  also  that  a large  part  of  the  water  entering  the 
machine  is  wasted. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  working  of  the  ram  that  the  drive  pipe  (a)  be  from  25  to 
50  feet  long,  and  that  the  fall  from  the  source  of  supply  to  the  ram  be  at  least  18 
inches,  so  as  to  obtain  the  required  velocity.  If  it  is  desirable  to  locate  the  ram 
nearer  than  25  feet  to  the  source,  the  necessary  length  of  pipe  may  be  gotten  by 
leading  a portion  of  the  connection  in  a coil  of  about  6 feet  in  diameter.  It  is 
most  important  that  the  fall  from  the  supply  to  the  ram  should  not  be  too  great, 
otherwise  the  increased  velocity  will  be  such  as  to  strain  severely  the  working 
parts  of  the  ram. 

The  relation  of  source  to  ram  and  to  the  point  of  delivery  determines  the 
proportion  between  water  raised  and  that  wasted.  1 he  machine  may  drive  water 
to  a distance  of  from  1,600  to  3,300  feet  and  raise  it  to  a height  of  100  to  200  feet; 
often  it  will  do  better  than  this  without  too  much  strain  on  the  ram.  A fall  of  10 
feet  from  source  to  ram  will  raise  water  to  150  feet  and  even  higher,  with  a 
diminution  of  the  amount  raised.  Water  carried  about  1,000  feet  and  elevated 
to  a height  ten  times  its  fall,  will  deliver  about  one-fourteenth  the  amount  of 
water  used,  or  one-seventh  part  if  the  water  be  raised  but  five  times  the  fall.  I bus 
in  the  conveyance  of  water  to  a distance  of  1,000  feet,  where  the  fall  is  10  feet, 
and  the  rise  is  100  feet,  one  gallon  of  every  14  utilised  is  delivered.  These  pro- 
portions may  be  used  as  a basis  of  reckoning.  A small  ram  will  raise  about  500 
gallons  and  a large  one  about  500,000  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours.  It  is  important 
that  the  pit  which  receives  the  waste  overflow  from  the  ram  be  low  enough  and 
properly  drained  so  as  to  avoid  any  chance  of  the  contents  backing  up  over  the 
ram.  By  the  use  of  the  ram  not  only  can  the  water  lifted  be  from  the  same 
source  as  that  of  power,  but  it  can  be  from  a different  source;  thus  impure  water 
may  become  the  lifting  agency  for  the  pure  supply. 

The  most  common  method  of  procuring  water  is  by  the  use  of  pumps,  as  the 
source  of  supply  is  more  often  low  than  otherwise.  One  can  draw  water  from 
a well  by  means  of  a “suction  pump,”  but  in  order  that  it  may  be  forced  into 
the  storage  the  “force  pump”  must  be  used.  The  common  suction  pump  is  good 
for  about  25  feet;  for  a depth  in  excess  of  this  the  force  pump  should  be  used. 

Although  the  hand  pump  is  effective  and  may  answer  for  primitive  methods, 
yet  it  is  slow  and  tiresome;  this  from  bitter  experiences.  A picturesque  and 
effective  pump  is  that  operated  through  the  agency  of  a windmill.  There  are 
several  types  of  this  machine,  which  dates  its  origin  back  for  a considerable  period. 
The  cost  of  windmills  varies,  as  do  styles,  sizes  and  the  elevation  of  them.  A 
io-foot  galvanised  steel  windmill  on  a 6o-foot  galvanised  steel  tower  would  cost 
about  $275.  A 14-foot  windmill  on  a 6o-foot  wooden  frame  tower  would  cost 
about  $375. 

Power  pumps  can  be  gotten  which  are  worked  by  several  different  agents,  but 
perhaps  the  best  of  these  for  ordinary  home  use  are  the  gasoline  and  hot-air  pumps. 


243 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 

The  gasoline  affair  is  a quick  and  effective  worker  and  reasonably  safe;  its  work- 
ing will  be  readily  understood  by  the  automobile  and  motor-boat  enthusiast.  While 
this  type  has  the  advantage  in  speed  and  size,  the  hot-air  is  extremely  simple,  and 
can  be  run  by  anyone  with  perfect  safety.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  one  after 
getting  the  “hang”  of  it  can  fire  up  and  start  the  thing,  close  up  the  house  and  go 
fishing,  with  the  reasonable  assurance  that  the  tank  will  be  about  full  when  the 
pump  stops.  One  would  hardly  care 
to  do  this  with  the  gasoline  type,  and 
yet  both  are  very  satisfactory  workers 
and  small  consumers  of  fuel.  The  cost 
of  a two-horsepower  pumping  engine  is 
about  $285.  A hot-air  pump  of  the  same 
power  is  about  the  same  price. 

For  obvious  reasons  it  is  not  advis- 
able to  “store”  drinking  water;  it  should 
be  pumped  through  a small  bored  pipe 
into  the  house  direct.  In  this  way  it 
can  be  drawn  when  wanted,  and  can 
be  had  reasonably  cool  and  fresh. 

Where  the  land  is  over-wet  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  drain  it,  three  sys- 
tems are  employed,  viz.,  surface,  under 
and  deep  drainage.  The  system  of 
surface  drainage  is  a primitive  one.  It 
consists  in  making  channels  through  the  surface  of  the  ground  for  the  flow  of  surface 
water.  I hough  effective,  it  is  unsightly  and  hardly  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  ordinary  country  estate.  Its  disadvantage,  where  used,  is  its  tendency 
to  fill  up,  and  to  disfigure  the  land,  making  it  an  object  for  constant  repairs. 

Under  drainage  consists  of  a number  of  small  drains  placed  parallel  to  one 
another  and  opening  into  a larger  discharging  drain,  which  carries  the  water  to 
the  point  of  disposal.  1 hese  drains  should  extend  in  the  direction  of  the  slope 
of  the  land,  and  be  numerous  enough  to  dispose  of  the  accumulation.  When 
located  under  permanent  soil  they  can  be  laid  within  several  inches  of  the  grade, 
but  in  land  used  for  tillage  their  depth  should  be  sufficient  to  escape  the  plough, 
spade  and  the  like.  The  drain  pipe  used  is  of  the  porous,  open-joint  variety,  or  an 
ordinary  blind  drain  of  small  and  broken  stones  may  answer  if  the  flow  of  water 
is  not  too  great.  A combination  of  the  two  is  even  better. 

While  the  surface  and  under  systems  take  care  of  the  surface  water,  the 
existence  of  excessive  moisture,  which  is  commonly  caused  by  hidden  springs  or 
other  subsoil  discharges,  makes  the  use  of  the  deep  drain  imperative.  The  source 
should  be  located  and  conditions  studied  before  the  drains  are  dup,  otherwise  much 
labour  may  be  wasted.  Its  principle  is  that  the  sources  should  be  intercepted  in 
their  passage  to  the  gathering  place  and  carried  off  out  of  the  way.  Frequently 
the  growth  of  alders,  willows  and  the  like  indicates  the  location  of  the  greatest 
moisture,  but  this  is  not  to  be  implicitly  relied  upon.  The  drains  should  be 
lower  than  the  source  of  supply,  and  are  ordinarily  of  the  simple  blind  drain  or 


Fig.  45.  Blind  and  combination  drains.  On  the  left  the 
blind  drain,  broken  stone  affording  passage  for  water.  On  the 
right  a combination  of  blind  and  pipe  drains.  Both  sorts  are 
usable  in  subsoil  and  deep  drainage 


244  The  Country  House 

composite  type  (see  Fig.  45).  It  frequently  happens  that  the  source  of  excessive 
moisture  is  in  a hill  of  clay,  shedding  its  surface  water  so  as  to  collect  in  some 
hollow.  In  this  case  the  drain  should  extend  across  the  shed  at  its  base,  thus  pre- 
venting its  surface 
collection  below. 

1 h e dangers 
attending  the  ordi- 
nary slovenly  ways 
of  private  sewerage 
disposal  are  not  to 
be  underestimated. 
1 hey  are  frequently 
responsible  for  much 
ill  health,  and  often 
death.  Even  the 
ordinary  accepted 
methods  of  disposal 
are  bad,  they  being 
another  exemplifica- 
tion of  the  old  say- 
ing, “Out  of  sight, 
out  of  mind.” 

The  great  dif- 
ficulties arising  from  this  question  are  numerous  and  very  frequently  require  ex- 
pert attention,  which  is  often  foiled  owing  to  natural  insurmountable  conditions. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  its  evil  influence  on  the  water  supply,  but,  even  pro- 
vided that  that  be  removed  by  the  introduction  of  public  service,  the  problem  is 
still  complex.  Although  the  importance  of  public  sendee  is  early  realised,  the 
great  evils  arising  from  lack  of  public  disposal  do  not  seem  to  be  appreciated 
by  the  public  at  large.  You  can  get  money  for  new  streets  and  new  sidewalks, 
but  the  public  sewerage  system,  which  is  of  vastly  more  importance,  arouses  no 
enthusiasm  whatever. 

The  great  question  in  the  disposal  of  sewage  is  how  it  may  be  handled  so  as 
not  to  become  a nuisance  to  someone.  It  is  not  only  important  that  the  estate 
to  which  the  sewage  belongs  shall  not  suffer  ill  effects,  but  that  the  neighbours 
shall  be  in  like  manner  protected  from  it. 

The  principal  things  to  be  remembered  and  avoided  are  stagnation  and  decay. 
Waste  matter  left  to  itself  to  collect,  and  away  from  the  cleansing,  oxidising 
effect  of  the  atmosphere,  the  purifying  action  of  plant  life  and  the  neutralising 
influence  of  the  top  soil,  becomes  a dangerous  nuisance.  1 be  chief  end  to  be 
attained  is  the  destruction  of  all  impure  qualities  through  the  agency  of  natural 
sources  as  far  as  possible. 

Liquids  and  solids  should  be  kept  apart  as  far  as  may  be  practical,  with  a view 
to  the  ease  of  their  disposal.  The  liquids  thould  he  used  to  irrigate  the  vegetable 
garden,  lawn,  grapevines,  fruit  trees,  etc.,  or  they  may  be  carried  through  one  or 
more  tile  drains  under  the  soil  to  50  feet  or  more  away  from  the  house  and  then 


A lank  at  West  Hampton  Beach,  Long  Island,  that  harmonises  with  the  oiher  buildings. 
Many  tanks  are  ugly  and  out  of  place.  This  one  “belongs."  It  supplies  both  house  and 
farm  with  water.  Trank  E.  Wallis,  architect 


245 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 


allowed  to  filter  through  loose  stones  to  the  soil.  It  is  important  to  remember 
that  such  applications  to  the  soil  should  be  made  before  decomposition  com- 
mences, and  in  moderate  quantities  and  at  intervals  so  as  not  to  over  saturate  the 
soil.  Its  disposal  should  be  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  so  as  to  benefit  by 
the  oxidising  influence  of  the  air.  Solid  matters  should  be  collected  and  removed 
at  intervals  and  dug  into  the  soil  in  the  summer. 

The  old-fashioned  privy  should  not  be  considered  for  a moment;  where  the 
water  closet  is  not  used  there  should  be  an  earth  closet.  The  earth  closet  can 
be  procured  ready- 
made, or  built  as 
desired.  In  this  the 
excreta  are  received 
into  a movable 
wooden  box,  well 
lined  with  galvanised 
iron  or  tarred.  Dry 
earth  or  ashes  are 
used  to  absorb  foul- 
ness, and  the  box 
should  be  arranged 
so  that  its  removal 
and  transportation 
be  easy.  It  should 
be  emptied  at  fre- 
quent intervals  and 
the  contents  dis- 
posed of  as  already 
suggested.  It  is 
understood  that  a 
properly  ventilated 
structure  should  pro- 
tect it  from  the  rain 
and  weather.  The 
earth  closet  may  be 
embodied  in  an  ex- 
tension of  the  house 
itself,  but  it  should 
also  be  separated 
from  it  by  an  open 
passageway. 

With  the  use  of 
the  water  closet  the 
cesspool  becomes  the 
natural  receptacle. 

1 he  ordinary  method  is  to  release  the  sewage  into  the  leaching  or  dry-wall  type, 
in  which  the  liquids,  escaping  through  the  loose  stones,  saturate  and  permeate  the 


Tank  and  windmill  at  Southport,  Long  Island.  A most  excellent  and  dignified  treatment. 

Wilson  Eyre,  architect 


246 


The  Country  House 


soil  about,  leaving  the  solid  matter  and  grease  in  the  cesspool.  It  is  thus  seen  that 
the  contents  of  the  cesspool  are  left  to  decay  slowly,  while  the  soil  about  becomes 
stagnant  with  the  considerable  liquid  impurities.  As  to  the  water  used  in  flushing, 
it  is  merely  a carrying  agent  and  has  no  material  purifying  effect. 

If  the  leaching  cesspool  be  used,  it  is  best  that  it  be  connected  with  a blind 
drain,  which  may  wind  in  and  about  such  land  as  is  available,  at  a slight  incline,  so 
as  to  distribute  the  otherwise  concentrated  fluid  accumulation.  The  solid  matter 

should  be  removed  at  regular  intervals 
and  disposed  of  as  already  suggested. 
The  cost  of  an  ordinary  cesspool  is  but 
slightly  in  excess  of  the  similar  well.  It 
is  needless  to  state  that  every  cesspool 
should  be  located  as  far  from  the  house 
and  well  as  possible. 

The  good  cesspool  is  the  tight  type 
laid  up  of  hard -burned  brick  and 
hydraulic  cement.  It  should  be  built  in 
two  compartments,  the  first  receiving  the 
solids  and  the  second  the  liquids.  Each 
compartment  should  be  circular  in  shape, 
domed  over  at  the  top  and  fitted  with  a 
manhole  having  a tight  iron  cover.  It 
should  be  ventilated  in  the  best  possible 
manner  and  be  emptied  and  cleaned 
frequently.  Another  type  which  gives 
considerable  satisfaction  is  that  in  which 
two  leaching  cesspools  with  covered  tops 
are  used.  The  first  is  a septic  tank  in 
which  the  solids  decompose.  The  over- 
flow filters  through  the  dry  stone  wall 
to  the  second  tank,  where  a syphon 
discharges  intermittently,  carrying  the 
liquid  through  tight-laid  drain  pipes  to 
several  filter  beds  on  the  surface.  These 
filter  beds  are  of  sand  about  4 feet  deep, 
with  deep  drains  leading  off  from  under 
them  to  carry  the  purified  liquid  after 
its  passage  through  the  sand.  The  filter 
beds  are  generally  located  in  clumps  of 
bushes  or  trees  to  be  out  of  sight.  This 
system,  might,  with  four  filter  beds,  be 
constructed  for  about  $400  or  $500,  and 
although  it  is  contrary  to  the  principle  of  not  allowing  any  matter  to  decompose, 
yet  it  is  said  to  give  satisfaction.  It  is  argued  that  the  solids  become  dissolved 
and  largely  assimilated  by  the  liquid  matter. 

One  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  with  all  types  of  cesspools  is  that  they  should  be 


Hiding  an  iron  standpipe  by  a wooden  shell.  A high  tower 
near  farm  of  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  Esq.,  Egypt,  Mass.  A stand 
pipe  shell  like  this  could  be  built  for  about  $2,000.  Cool- 
idge  & Carlton,  architects 


247 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 

of  moderate  size,  so  as  not  to  accumulate  too  much  matter,  thus  tempting  less 
frequent  cleaning.  The  cleaning  of  the  cesspool  is  necessary  to  its  perfection. 

All  connections  between  the  house  and  cesspool  should  have  the  proper  dis- 
connecting traps  to  avert  the  possibility  of  sewer  gas  entering  the  former.  It  may 
be  advantageous  to  use  a slightly  impure  water  source  as  a flushing  agent.  Some- 
times water  may  be  struck  which, 
though  unhealthy  if  taken  into  the  sys- 
tem, can  well  be  utilised  for  this  purpose. 

Though  there  are  times  when  the 
home  sewage  can  be  disposed  of  through 
the  medium  of  quick  water,  it  is  apt 
sooner  or  later  to  cause  trouble.  We 
have  already  stated  that  water  is  but  a 
carrying  agent,  and  as  such  it  is  more 
than  likely  to  carry  sewage  where  it  is 
not  wanted.  Tidewater  streams  are  out 
of  the  question,  and  direct  transmission 
into  the  ocean  tends  to  defile  the  shores 
to  a greater  or  less  extent.  There  are 
cases,  of  course,  where  both  the  quick 
stream  and  the  ocean  may  be  utilised, 
but  such  are  rare. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  private 
sewage  disposal  is  by  means  of  the  sub- 
soil irrigation.  This  system  is  superior 
to  the  broad  (surface)  irrigation  in  that 
it  is  neither  offensive  to  sight  nor  smell. 

It  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  soil  next 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground  possesses 
in  a large  degree  power  to  destroy  organic 
matter  buried  in  it.  Therefore  the  dis- 
tribution of  waste  should  not  be  greater 
than  io  or  12  inches  below  the  surface. 

An  intermittent  discharge  of  sewage 
oxygen  during  the  interval  and  to  breathe  preparatory  to  the  next  discharge.  1 he 
frequency  of  discharge  depends  on  the  amount  of  waste  to  be  disposed  of,  the  size 
of  tank  and  area  of  piping.  It  should  not  however  occur  oftener  than  once  a day. 

In  brief,  this  system  consists  of  an  absolutely  tight  tank  for  the  collection 
of  household  wastes  and  a network  of  common  drain  tiles  laid  with  open  joints 
below  the  surface  through  which  the  accumulation  is  discharged.  The  irrigated 
field  may  well  be  under  the  grass  plots  and  flower  beds,  that  the  growth  may 
take  nourishment  from  the  distribution.  The  soil,  of  course,  should  be 
porous,  clay  and  damp  soil  being  well  under-drained.  Generally  the  small 
drain  pipes  are  laid  in  earthenware  gutters  laid  with  open  joints,  and  having 
earthenware  cups  to  protect  them  from  the  soil  above.  The  ordinary  pitch  of 
3 inches  to  100  feet  is  usually  sufficient. 


A windmill  that  is  not  unsightly.  Everyone  who  can  afford 
to  cover  the  steel  frame  of  a tank  with  a wooden  shell  should 
do  so  out  of  respect  for  neighbours,  visitors,  and  the  landscape 


affords  the  upper  soil  time  to  take  up 


248 


The  Country  House 


The  main  discharging  drams,  which  lead  from  the  tank  to  the  lesser  dis- 
tributing drains,  are  ordinarily  4-inch,  laid  with  cement  joints  and  connected  by  Y 
or  T branches.  Starting  from  the  tank  at  a depth  of  2 feet,  they  gradually  reach  the 
depth  of  and  connect  with  the  lesser  distributing  drains.  With  this  arrangement 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  field  of  irrigation  is  somewhat  removed  from  immediate 
contact  with  the  house. 

The  above  system,  as  described  by  Colonel  Waring,  is  on  the  following  lines: 
A double-chambered  flush  tank  is  located  at  some  distance  from  the  house  and 
discharges  intermittently  through  the  main  pipe,  which  is  laid  with  cement  joints 

and  has  a pitch  of  about  4 inches 
to  100  feet.  This  pitch,  with  the 
natural  falling  off  of  the  land,  will 
bring  the  pipe  to  the  sub-surface 
under  ordinary  conditions.  The 
connections  with  the  tile  lines  are 
made  from  the  bottom  of  this  pipe. 
There  should  be  a gate  on  each 
branch  of  the  distribution,  so  that 
they  may  be  used  in  rotation  to 
receive  the  discharge  (see  Fig.  46). 
He  suggests  that  the  lesser  dis- 
tributing pipes  be  4-inch  horse- 
shoe tiles,  laid  in  trenches  of  small 
broken  stone  or  pebbles.  These 
should  be  pitched  2 inches  to  100 
feet  so  as  to  avoid  an  accumulation 
of  matter  at  the  end  of  the  drains. 

The  double-chambered  flush 
tank  (see  Fig.  46)  consists  of  two 
circular  masonry  tanks  with  solid 
walls,  the  first  and  smaller  chamber 
of  which  holds  back  the  solids  and 
scum,  while  the  second  chamber  accumulates  the  liquids  ready  for  discharge.  1 he 
discharging  chamber  should  be  made  large  enough  to  hold  the  product  of  at  least 
twelve  hours;  it  may  be  enlarged  for  a twenty-four-hour  deposit,  but  no  larger. 
The  bouse  drain  or  inlet  (f),  discharges  into  the  receiving  compartment  (c)  of 
the  settling  chamber  (a).  The  discharge  being  more  or  less  agitated,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  two  compartments  of  the  settling  chamber  so  that  the  overflow  (h)  may 
not  carry  solids  into  the  discharging  chamber  (b).  The  overflow  compartment 
(d),  being  separated  from  the  receiving  compartment,  is  not  disturbed  by  the 
inflow,  and  is  thus  effective.  When  the  discharging  chamber  becomes  full  the 
syphon  discharges  automatically  the  entire  contents.  Manholes  are  made  in  the 
top  of  each  chamber  so  that  it  can  be  readily  gotten  at  and  cleansed. 

The  chief  objection  to  this  sort  of  flush  tank  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  receiv- 
ing compartment  has  all  the  worse  characteristics  of  a cesspool.  For  this  reason 
the  tank  should  be  located  at  some  distance  from  the  house  and  be  cleaned  of 


plan  of  tSpjfem. 


Fig.  46.  Showing  the  flush  tank  for  the  sub-soil  system,  with 
plan  of  pipe  outlay 


a.  Settling  chamber  e.  Siphon 

b.  Discharging  chamber  f.  Inlet 

c.  Receiving  compartment  g.  Outlet 

d.  Overflow  compartment  h.  Overflow 


k.  House 

m.  Flush  tank 

n.  Distributing  outlets 


249 


Water  Supply  and  Drainage 

solid  deposits  frequently.  I he  only  objection  that  has  been  raised  against  this 
system  as  a whole  is  that  the  pipes  sometimes  become  clogged  and  have  to  be 
dug  up.  In  such  cases  it  would  seem  that  the  trouble  is  not  with  the  system  but 
with  the  manner  in  which  the  pipes  have  been  worked;  they  require  proper 
flushing  to  keep  them  clean. 

Whatever  method  of  drainage  or  sewage  disposal  is  adopted,  it  is  important 
that  it  be  decided  upon  before  the  inside  house  drainage  system  is  arranged, 
otherwise  complications  are  apt  to  arise. 

The  sanitary  principles  which  govern  the  disposal  of  the  house  sewage  may 
well,  with  certain  natural  limitations,  be  applied  to  that  of  the  barn  and  stable. 
As  in  the  former  case,  the  separation  of  the  liquids  and  solid  matter  will  add 
materially  to  the  ease  of  its  care  and  disposition. 

Although  garbage  cannot  be  considered  as  either  drainage  or  sewage,  its 
disposal  is  an  important  sanitary  consideration  not  to  be  treated  lightly.  Pro- 
vided poultry  or  swine  form  a part  of  the  stock,  this  question  is  simplified,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  latter.  Poultry,  however,  are  fastidious  and  are  apt  to  leave 
much  to  be  trod  under  foot  and  decay,  which  makes  it  necessary  to  collect  and 
compost  this  rejected  element.  Where  neither  poultry,  swine  nor  the  public  collec- 
tion are  at  hand  to  aid,  the  composting  of  garbage  becomes  a necessity. 

Whatever  method  of  disposal  is  used,  the  garbage  receptacle  itself  should  be 
of  galvanised  iron  with  a tight  cover.  1 his  receptacle  should  be  frequently  emptied, 
and  as  frequently  and  thoroughly  cleaned.  It  should  not  be  kept  indoors  under 
any  consideration.  Sometimes  the  natural  conditions  are  such  that  it  may  be 
enclosed  in  a tight  box  with  a cover,  which  box  may  have  a small  galvanised  vent 
pipe  running  into  the  kitchen  chimney  and  thence  to  the  top  and  the  outside  air. 
Such  an  arrangement,  if  feasible,  will  carry  oft  any  odours  which  may  collect. 


A modern  Colonial  stable  at  Brookline,  Mass. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 

F THE  several  buildings  of  lesser  magnitude  than  the  house 
which  go  to  make  up  the  complete  system  of  the  country  estate, 
the  stable  is  perhaps  the  most  important. 

To  the  man  who  has  made  the  horse  a study  and  interested 
himself  enough  to  have  a stable  of  his  own,  the  certain  requisites 
are  more  or  less  familiar,  and  perhaps  better  understood  than 
the  convenient  planning  of  the  house.  1 he  horse  lover  knows 
his  charge  and  the  relative  locations  of  the  working  parts. 

To  begin  with,  let  us  take  the  horse  from  the  stable:  First  he  is  led  from 
the  stall,  allowed  to  drink,  then  is  brushed  up  and  receives  his  harness,  after  which 
he  takes  up  the  carriage  on  the  route  to  the  out  of  doors.  Thus  a light  and  con- 
venient place  for  such  cleaning  should  be  provided;  the  harness  room  should  be 
handy  to  this,  and  between  it  and  the  carriage  or  coach  house.  It  is  essential  that 
everything  should  move  outwardly,  in  the  most  natural  and  convenient  manner. 
The  desired  carriage  should  be  easily  pulled  into  free  space  and  the  whole 
turnout  ready  to  pass  through  the  door  without  effecting  any  fancy  figures  or 
trying  to  stand  on  its  head. 

On  returning,  the  carriage  is  dropped  in  the  carriage  house,  to  be  rolled  later 
to  the  carriage  wash.  Horse  and  harness  pass  on  to  a cleaning  space,  which  shall 
be  used  for  that  purpose  alone,  where  the  harness  is  removed  and  carried  to 

250 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc,  251 

the  harness  room  close  at  hand.  The  horse,  carriage  and  harness  are  cleaned 
and  returned  to  their  proper  places,  with  very  little  trouble  and  fuss. 

It  is  a good  plan  to  have  entrance  doors  on  opposite  sides  of  the  carriage 
house,  so  that  the  turnout  may  be  left  to  stand  for  a short  time  under  cover  in 
cold  weather,  and  that  it  may  be  driven  out  of  the  opposite  door  from  which 
it  entered,  saving  the  annoyance  of  backing  out.  The  above  arrangement  is 
shown  in  Fig.  47,  and  is  easily  followed  from  this  description.  It  is  simply  neces- 
sary to  call  the  attention  to  the  main  lines  of  traffic  and  the  ease  with  which  they 
connect  the  various  parts  of  the  outlay.  The  doors  a and  b would  naturally  be 
used  as  exit  doors,  while  the  door  c would  be  used  as  an  entrance.  In  this  last 
case  the  carriage  is  left  on  the  wash  stand  and  the  horses  unharnessed  there. 
The  staircase  to  the  hayloft  is  in  the  southeast  corner;  the  other  staircase  leads 
to  the  quarters 


between  the  hubs  of  vehicles,  and  also  that  they  be  drawn  into  free  space  and 
headed  for  the  entrance  with  the  least  possible  trouble.  In  allowing  for  free 
space,  not  only  the  carriage  but  the  horse  must  be  considered,  as  the  latter 
must  often  pass  the  former  in  order  to  reach  the  thills.  Its  height,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  outside  doorway,  should  be  about  14  feet,  so  that  both  carriage  top  and 
the  driver’s  head  be  spared  the  possibility  of  collision.  Blinds  should  be  pro- 
vided, so  that  vehicles  may  be  protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  but  the 
room  should  be  free  from  damp  and  moisture.  A closet  for  the  storage  of  lifting 
jack,  wrenches,  wheel  grease,  dusters  and  spare  carriage  covers  will  be  found 
of  much  convenience.  Hardwood  poles,  4 inches  in  diameter  and  of  smooth 
finish,  should  be  provided  for  the  hanging  of  robes. 

The  carriage  wash  should  be  handy  and  yet  removed  from  the  carriage 
house  in  such  a manner  that  its  general  dampness  shall  not  affect  the  latter,  or, 


252 


J he  Country  House 


for  that  matter,  any  other  part  of  the  stable.  Frequently  the  wash  is  without 
covering,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  the  best  treatment.  It  may  be  made 

with  open  sides  and  roofed  over  after 
the  manner  of  a porch,  but  even  this 
has  its  disadvantages  in  cold  weather. 
It  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated, 
and  the  floor  made  of  asphalt,  sloping 
toward  a central  drain.  Sponge  and 
chamois  racks  should  be  provided. 

The  walls  of  the  harness  room 
should  be  sheathed  and  the  room  pro- 
vided with  either  fireplace  or  stove  for 
use  in  damp  weather.  Harness  cases 
should  be  used  only  for  storage;  har- 
nesses in  use  should  be  hung  on  wooden 
brackets,  viz.,  reins,  bridle,  saddle  and 
collar  brackets.  Besides  these  the 
saddle  tree  and  whip  rack  will  be  found 
necessary.  All  these  fittings  may  be 
had  of  the  sa  ddler. 

Although  harnesses  are  usually 
cleaned  in  the  harness  room,  it  is  better 
on  account  of  dampness  that  a separate 
and  well-lighted  and  ventilated  room  be 
provided  for  this  purpose.  This  is  best 
located  between  the  harness  room  and 
the  wash  stand  used  for  horses,  as  the 
horse  led  at  once  to  the  latter  can  be 
easily  relieved  of  his  trappings,  which 
then  move  by  the  shortest  route  through 
the  process  of  cleaning  to  their  final 
disposition  in  the  harness  room.  The 
cleaning  room  should  be  fitted  with 
wash  sinks,  suspended  harness  hooks, 
harness  pegs,  shelves,  wringers,  sponges 
and  chamois  racks. 

1 he  ordinary  stall  should  be  about  g x 5^  feet,  with  vertical  sheathed  side 
partitions  about  feet  high,  surmounted  by  an  iron  screen  2 feet  high.  This 
screen  is  best  constructed  of  perpendicular  bars. 

I he  box  stall  should  be  about  10  x 12  feet,  provided  with  doors  sliding 
laterally  or  swinging  outward.  1 he  box  stall  reserved  as  a sick  stall  should  be 
about  12x16  feet,  and  so  arranged  as  to  be  entirely  shut  off  from  the  other  stalls. 

It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  state  that  the  place  for  the  manger  is  in  the 
left  and  that  of  the  hayrack  in  the  tight  hand  corner,  but  for  him  who  would 
tie  up  a horse  by  the  tail  this  would  be  information.  The  quarter-round  metal 
manger  seems  to  be  the  accepted  type;  it  is  simple,  clean  and  convenient.  It  is 


Stable  at  Overbrook,  Pa.  Cost  about  $ 12,000.  Wm.  L. 
Price,  architect 


253 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 

now  acknowledged  that  a horse  naturally  eats  off  the  floor,  or  at  least  not  higher 
than  his  own  chest.  For  this  reason  the  hayrack  as  well  as  the  manger  are 


best  placed  in  the  latter  position.  1 here 
is  of  necessity  much  scattering  of  food 
in  a horse  stall,  but  it  seems  as  if  the 
feeding  of  hay  and  grain  through  chutes 
from  above  reduces  in  a measure  the 
waste,  as  well  as  the  danger,  attending 
the  use  of  a metal-tined  fork. 

The  flooring  of  a stall  is  a vital 
question.  For  the  sake  of  cleanliness 
and  durability  it  is  usually  of  brick;  for 
the  comfort  of  the  horse,  of  elm  or  oak. 
Being  in  any  event  a hard  surface,  the 
custom  of  using  the  branch  drain  in  the 
centre  of  the  stall  and  pitching  the 
flooring  toward  it  from  either  side, 
should  be  adopted  with  limitations.  The 
pitch  is  apt  to  twist  the  horse’s  feet 
unless  it  be  very  slight.  This  centre 
metal  drain  leads  to  a main  drain,  also 
of  metal,  running  in  the  rear  of  the 
stalls.  T he  box  stall  offers  a relief  to 
the  horse,  as  its  floor  can  be  more  readily 
covered  with  tanbark  or  the  like  with- 
out danger  of  much  scattering. 

Stall  windows  should  be  about  9 
feet  from  the  floor.  If  it  is  deemed 
advisable  to  make  a window  low  enough 
for  the  horse  to  look  out  of,  it  should  be 
but  supplementary,  and  capable  of  being 
closed  in  windy  or  cold  weather.  All 
windows  should,  however  situated,  be 
provided  with  screens. 

As  a relief  from  standing  in  the 
stall,  the  paddock  is  excellent.  It  should 
be  placed  on  the  south  side,  and  be  par- 
tially shaded  by  trees  if  possible.  In 
size  it  may  be  from  30  to  75  feet 
square,  as  circumstances  allow;  the 
larger  size  is  of  course  to  be  preferred. 
A 6-  or  7-foot  fence  should  enclose  it; 
a lower  one  may  suggest  to  the  horse 
that  he  can  jump  it,  which  burst  of  over- 
confidence  may  result  most  disastrously 
to  either  the  horse  or  the  fence,  or  both. 


Stable  at  Dedham,  Mass.  Cost  abont  $2,300.  Capacity, 
five  horses  and  four  carriages.  The  part  of  the  building  to  be 
heated  is  in  the  centre,  shut  off  by  heavy  doors  from  stalls  and 
carriage  room.  Frank  Chouteau  Brown,  architect 


Section  and  plan  of  horse  stall  of  above  example,  showing  an 
excellent  method  of  floor  construction 


254 


The  Country  House 


Stall  room  of  stable  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  showing  box  and  ordinary  stalls 


I he  drying  platform,  intended  for  the  drying  of  bedding,  should  be  located 
on  the  south  side,  be  open  to  light  and  air,  and  at  the  same  time  be  handy  to  the 

stall  room.  It  is 
constructed  of  plank 
slats,  about  4 inches 
wide,  spaced  about 
if  inches  apart, 
which  allows  a free 
circulation  of  air 
through  the  bed- 
ding. 

With  the  possi- 
ble exception  of  a 
certain  place  of 
which  we  have  heard 
much,  and  which  is 
reputed  to  embody 
the  major  part  of 
the  great  hereafter, 
the  ordinary  hayloft 
in  summer  is  the 
hottest  spot  existing. 
For  this  reason  it 

should  be  as  well  ventilated  as  possible.  1 he  hay  should  be  handy  to  the  chutes 
and  may  occupy  part  of  the  space  above  the  stall  room.  Grain  chutes  should  be 
of  tin  or  tin  lined,  and  the  latter  treatment  should  be  applied  to  the  hay  chutes.  It 
is  important  that  all  chutes  be  provided  with  metal-lined,  hinged  covers.  Dust 
is  thus  shut  off  from  the  stall  room,  and  the  risk  attending  the  open  flue  in  case  of 
hre  in  a large  measure  obviated. 

If  one  is  obliged  to  depend  on  that  probable  ancestor  of  the  modern  cereal, 
called  “baled  hay,’’  a hay  pole  should  be  provided  for.  It  is  essential  that  it  be 
placed  high  enough  from  the  hayloft  Hoor  to  allow  of  a free  working  of  the  hoisting 

tackle.  Even  if  the 
tackle  works  free  of 
interference  of  the 
blocks,  their  near- 
ness hinders  the 
swing  necessary  to 
the  easy  entering  of 
the  aforesaid 
“cereal”  through 
the  loft  door. 

If  one  has  the 
necessary  funds  to 

expend  on  the  stable,  let  him  construct  a rat-proof  grain  room.  It  should  be 
located  over  the  stall  room,  and  in  any  event  be  fitted  with  tin-lined  bins. 


Barn  and  poultry  house  at  Chestnut  Hill,  .Mass. 


255 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 

Sometimes  these  bins  are  so  arranged  as  to  connect  from  above  directly  with  the 
chutes,  but,  as  the  better  method  requires  the  presence  of  some  one  in  the  hay- 
loft at  meal  times,  this  is  not  necessary. 

The  ordinary  manure  pit  is  the  receptacle  for  more  moisture  than  is  absolutely 
good  for  it.  A certain  amount  is  requisite  for  the  betterment  of  the  manure,  but 
if  the  bottom  of  the  pit  be  drained  the  surplus  moisture  is  easily  disposed  of. 
If  it  may  receive  some  light  and  good  ventilation  it  will  be  the  better  for  it. 

Heat  for  the 
stable  should  be  lim- 
ited to  the  carriage 
house,  harness  room 
and  grooms’  quar- 
ters. In  the  carriage 
house  it  should  be 
so  placed  that  the 
radiators  shall  not 
come  in  close  contact 
with  the  carriages. 

Heat,  if  carried 
to  the  stall  room, 
should  not  exceed 
the  freezing  point 
by  many  degrees. 

The  horse,  unlike 
man,  is  often  obliged 
to  remove  his  over- 
coat when  going 

out,  and  in  any  event  the  change  from  a highly  heated  stable  to  the  outer  cold 
is  a dangerous  transition.  There  are  those  who  claim  that  no  heat  at  all  is 
best,  but  it  would  seem  better  policy  to  install  a system  of  indirect  heat  capable 
of  raising  the  lowest  outside  temperature  to  350  F.  This,  if  properly  installed, 
could  be  reduced  as  much  as  desired  by  tempering  with  the  cold-air  supply. 

It  is  natural  that  all  animals  and  fowls  should  require  a certain  amount  of 
fresh  air,  and  this  may  be  unlimited  up  to  the  point  of  draught.  With  the  temper- 
ature of  fresh  air  at  320  F.  or  below,  the  supply  for  one  horse  per  hour  may  be 
limited  to  from  4,000  to  6,000  cubic  feet;  this  calculation  should  be  made  outside 
of  leakage. 

Cold  water  should  be  run  to  the  stall  room,  wash  room,  cleaning  rooms  and 
grooms’  quarters;  hot  water  to  the  cleaning  rooms  and  wash  room.  In  this  latter 
case  the  faucet  should  be  of  the  plain  unthreaded  type,  to  which  a hose  cannot  be 
attached;  the  reason  for  this  is  obvious.  What  little  hot  water  is  required  for  the 
stall  room  may  be  gotten  from  the  adjacent  cleaning  room. 

The  consideration  of  the  barn  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  few  who  may  desire 
to  play  the  farmer.  The  ordinary  country  affair  of  tender  memory  has  stamped 
its  influence  upon  its  descendant  much  too  thoroughly  to  be  mistaken;  the  wide 
central  alley,  side  bays  and  scaffold  are  not  to  be  denied.  The  ordinary  barn  for  the 


Stable  on  the  D.  C.  Blair  estate*  at  Bar  Harbor,  Me.  Living  quarters  above.  Could  be  built  for 
about  $12,000.  Andrews,  Jaques  & Rantoul,  architects 


256 


The  Country  House 


Fig.  48.  A good  stable  or  barn 
vent 


country  estate  would  probably  provide  for  horses  and  cows,  including  colt  and 
calf  pens  and  perhaps  a bull  pen,  granary,  hay  and  straw  mows,  and  a milk 
room  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  barn  in  such  a way  that  it  may  be  secure 

from  infectious  odours.  This  last  is  important  inasmuch 
as  milk  becomes  tainted  very  quickly,  and  its  removal  to 
an  isolated  place  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  is  im- 
perative. To  the  above  list  should  also  be  added  the  en- 
closure or  paddock  for  both  horses  and  cattle. 

We  have  already  offered  several  suggestions  for 
the  horse  stall;  there  remains  the  cow  stall.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  common  type  of  tie-up  can  be  much  improved 
upon,  at  least  by  any  radical  change.  Every  cow  comes 
instinctively  to  the  old-fashioned  contrivance,  and  with 
a clever  toss  of  the  head  at  once  fastens  herself  in  the 
self-locking  yoke.  The  contrivance  is  very  simple  and 
complete,  and  it  is  hard  to  see  just  where  any  radical 
improvement  is  warranted  or  desired. 

Cow  stalls  are  built  in  two  styles — 
single  and  double.  The  single  stall  is 
usually  about  5x9  feet  and  the  double 
about  8 feet  wide.  It  is  needless  to 
state  that  the  single  type  is  preferable. 

The  cow  is  fed  off  the  floor  level, 
the  manger  being  placed  upon  it,  and 
the  feed  is  delivered  at  the  front  and 
from  the  central  alley  on  which  the  stalls 
usually  face. 

The  bull  pen  may  be  8 x 16  feet, 
with  tight  wall,  and  is  usually  more  or 
less  dark.  It  has  direct  access  to  the  cow 
yard.  As  the  bull  is  often  hard  enough 
to  lead  in  a straight  line,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  fancy  curves,  etc.,  it  is  best  that 
his  pen  be  provided  with  an  entrance  at  either  end,  each  leading  to  the  yard;  in 
this  way  he  may  travel  always  forward,  and  his  possible  escape  be  limited  to  the 
aforesaid  cow  yard. 

The  amount  of  air  allowed  for  cattle  is  the  same  as  that  for  a horse.  As 
there  is  no  heat,  the  ventilation  is  by  natural  draught.  This,  however,  may  be 
accelerated  under  normal  conditions  by  making  the  top  of  the  roof  vent  of  glass; 
the  sun  will  thus  warm  the  air  at  the  outlet  and  create  a draught. 

A good  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  48.  The  metal  vent  pipe  is  carried  into  the 
dome  so  that  the  flow  of  air  shall  not  be  cut  off  by  strong  winds  blowing  through 
the  hood.  The  hot-air  chamber  accelerates  the  draught. 

A simple  and  convenient  type  of  barn  is  shown  by  the  section  in  Fig.  49.  The 
site  is  on  sloping  ground,  and  the  central  alley  extends  through  from  end  to  end, 
with  double  doors  and  a driveway  at  each.  This  alley  is  2 feet  above  the  level 


257 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 

of  the  cow  stalls,  and  from  it  the  feed  is  delivered.  Hay,  straw  and  grain  are 
handy  to  it  and  also  to  the  horse  stalls  on  the  lower  slope.  The  cow  yard  and 
horse  paddock  are  located  conveniently  adjacent  to  their  respective  stall  rooms. 


Two  views  of  barn  at  “ Fairacres,”  Jen 
kintown,  Pa.  A highly  interesting  example 
of  simple,  artistic  treatment.  Wilson  Kyre, 
architect 

Poultry  houses  are  usu- 
ally any  old  shed,  and  with 
such  an  ancestry  it  is  hardly 
to  be  wondered  at  that  the 
more  elaborate  affair  is  not 
more  carefully  considered. 

The  fancier  who  naturally 
takes  a special  interest  in 
his  stock  is  keenly  alive  to 
the  inefficiency  of  the  prim- 
itive methods  and  advances 
accordingly. 

Poultry  being,  in  our 

cold  climate,  out  of  its  natural  sphere,  is  dependent  on  us  for  an  equalising  of 
conditions.  Thus  heat  is  required  in  winter,  reasonably  cool  quarters  in  sum- 
mer, and  light  and  air  at  all  times.  Wet  and  dampness,  too,  should  be  avoided, 
even  with  ducks  and  geese,  for  while  these  may  require  a shallow  wallowing  pool, 


258 


The  Country  House 


The  Thomas  W.  Lawson  dovecote,  at  Fgypt,  Mass. 
Coolidge  & Carlson,  architects 


they  do  not  roost  but  squat  on  the  ground.  Turkeys  especially  are  delicate  and 
require  great  care,  and  dampness  is  fatal  to  them.  The  invasion  of  rats  and 

small  preying  ani- 
mals should  likewise 
be  considered,  as 
the  trouble  and  an- 
noyance from  such 
sources  is  commonly 
known. 

With  the  above 
consideration  in 
view,  it  is  well  that 
the  entire  poultry 
enclosure,  including 
house  and  runs, 
should  have  a brick 
or  stone  foundation, 
laid  in  mortar, 
which  shall  com- 
prise the  vertical 

i 

sides  of  an  excava- 
tion some  2 feet 
deep.  The  bottom 
of  this  excavation  should  be  composed  of  small 
stones  with  a top  layer  of  concrete,  the  whole  to 
have  a slight  pitch  to  shed  moisture.  At  intervals  in 
the  wall  at  the  lower  side  of  pitch  should  be  placed 
blind  drains  of  very  small  stones  or  pebbles,  so  that, 
while  the  water  is  allowed  to  run  off,  no  rodent  may 
work  his  way  through  them.  The  excavation  to  the 
runs  may  be  filled  with  gravel  and  loam,  but  that  of 
the  house  should  have  clean  gravel  with  a consider- 
able top  layer  of  clean  ashes. 

Roosts  for  hens,  etc.,  should  not  be  too  high,  and  are  best  provided  with  a 
wooden  platform  below  them.  They  should  be  round,  amply  large,  and  not  too 
smooth.  Turkeys  roost  perhaps  higher  than  hens. 

Nests  for  hens  and  turkeys  may  be  fairly  low,  yet  off  the  ground;  those  of 
ducks  and  geese  practically  on  it.  All  should  be  secluded  and  yet  easy  of  de- 
tection by  the  poultry.  The  hatching  house  should  be  separated  from  the  main 
body  of  the  house  to  insure  quiet. 

Heat  can  be  furnished  in  sufficient  quantities  through  the  medium  of  a stove 
placed  in  the  feed  room,  and  the  feed  room  should  be  centrally  located  so  as  to 
convey  this  heat  to  roosting  house,  hatching  house  and  scratching  pens,  without 
too  much  complicated  mechanism.  Naturally  the  house  should  face  the  south,  and 
a steep  glass  roof  extending  to  the  ground  will  add  much  to  the  general  comfort 
of  the  occupants  in  winter  time. 


Ttough  Plan. 


259 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 

It  has  been  decided  that  the  “run”  should  be  long  and  narrow,  rather  than 
nearer  the  square  form,  the  poultry  getting  as  much  exercise  with  a smaller 
area  outlay.  As  it  may  not  always  be  desirable  to  roof  with  wire,  the  top  of 
the  run  fence  should  not  be  a stick  of  timber;  it  is  too  easily  located  by  the  fowl 
that  may  desire  to  “fly  the  coop.”  One  width  of  coarse-meshed  wire  stretched 
from  uprights  of  some  not  too  prominent  colour  is  more  effective  and  less  dis- 
cernible to  the  poultry.  In  the  case  of  chicks,  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  lower 


1 


The  most  approved  and  serviceable  form  of  poultry  house 


portion  of  the  fence  be  of  fairly  small- 
meshed  wire,  for  evident  reasons. 

A simple  and  convenient  hen  house 
is  shown  in  Fig.  50.  It  may  be  subject 
to  modification  or  elaboration  if  desired, 
but  it  has  much  that  is  good  as  it 
stands.  1 here  is  ample  glass  in  the 
winter  pen  for  the  low  sun  of  the  cold 
season,  and  in  summer  sections  of  the 
steep  pitch  may  be  replaced  by  blinds 
with  fixed  louvers.  The  nests  are 
secluded  under  the  roost  platform  and 
easily  gotten  at  from  the  back  passage, 
which  last,  being  to  the  north,  affords 
additional  protection  from  cold  by  rea- 
son of  its  air  place.  The  feed  room  is 
enclosed  with  a brick  wall  and  con- 
tains, besides  the  heater,  two  grain 
bins  and  a water  tap;  it  could  readily 
be  larger  and  more  elaborate.  From 
its  location,  it  will  be  seen  that  registers 
in  the  top  of  the  sides  would  carry  heat 
where  it  is  required.  Hatching  pens 
are  separated  from  direct  contact  with 
the  main  house  and  yet  convenient  to 
it.  All  nest  compartments  have  been 


5 10  is  20  2S  30  3S 


Scale 

Fig.  50.  A poultry  house  for  limited  stock 

H.  House  of  correction  S.  V.  Summer  vent 

M.  Medicine  closet  W,  Water 

N.  Nests  W.  V.  Winter  vent 

R.  Roosts 


260  The  Country  House 

arranged  so  that  a bed  of  ashes  may  be  placed  under  the  straw  nests.  The 
“house  of  correction,”  so  called,  is  located  in  the  most  prominent  and  exposed 
corner  so  that  its  nest-struck  occupants  may  not  be  lonesome.  It  is  provided 
with  a roost  in  the  sheltered  corner,  and  a drinking  jar,  as  indicated.  The  floor  is 

of  boards  filled  with  small  wire  spikes 
driven  in  at  intervals  of  3 inches  apart 
and  projecting  2 inches  above  the 
boards.  It  is  at  once  evident  that  such 
a field  ol  trouble,  while  it  cannot  harm 
the  prisoners,  is  at  once  the  most  un- 
comfortable affair  to  squat  on  and  at 
the  same  time,  from  the  spacing  of  nails, 
easy  of  navigation.  It  may  be  added, 
for  the  benefit  of  those  whose  apprehen- 
sion may  be  roused,  that  the  head  of  a 
wire  nail  is  round  and  smooth,  and,  of  the 
size  suggested,  perfectly  harmless  to  the 
fowl.  Wooden  pegs  may  be  substituted. 

The  pole  house  for  pigeons,  while 
not  so  common  in  this  country  as  in 
England,  is  nevertheless  a decorative 
feature  of  some  merit.  It  should  have 
a stout  pole  support  and  may  be  reached 
by  a ladder.  Its  natural  construction 
and  location  remove  it  beyond  the  reach 
of  cats  and  other  animals.  It  should  be 
located  in  a sunny  spot,  protected  from 
the  wind,  and  should  have  an  overhang- 
ing roof  to  exclude  the  weather.  The 
pigeonholes,  wherever  they  may  be  used, 
should  be  4 inches  wide  by  6 inches  high,  and  should  face  a warm  and  sheltered 
quarter.  Naturally,  each  hole  has  its  projecting  shelf. 

The  old-fashioned  dove-cote  has,  thanks  to  the  survival  of  the  fittest, 
found  a new  lease  of  life,  and  as  now  used  is  frequently  built  with  a flying  cage 
attached.  The  flooring  should  be  of  brick,  stone  or  cement  as  a safeguard 
against  rodents.  The  nests  must  naturally  line  the  walls,  and  its  plan  may 
embody  practically  two  stories,  as  in  the  Lawson  example.  If  pigeons  are 
allowed  to  fly,  some  device  should  be  used  to  shut  them  in  if  it  be  desirable. 

The  most  common  form  of  pigeon  house  is  that  which  forms  a part  and  a 
feature  of  the  stable  or  barn  gable.  Ordinarily  this  consists  of  one  large  apart- 
ment in  which  an  unholy  war  is  forever  raging,  resulting  in  broken  eggs  and  dead 
squabs,  besides  the  general  spirit  of  conflict.  Each  bird,  male  or  female,  should 
have  a separate  room.  These  may  be  connected  pairs  with  separate  entrance 
holes  (see  Fig.  51)  and  a common  lobby  or  porch.  In  this  way  more  peace  is 
had,  as  well  as  an  increase  of  squabs.  A wooden  bowl  in  the  corner  of  each, 
filled  with  hayseed,  will  serve  as  a nest,  and  in  this  way  it  is  claimed  that  two  broods 


26i 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 


Fig.  51.  Small  pigeon  house  for  gable  end  of  stable.  This 
motive  rests  upon  and  extends  beyond  the  hay  pole 


are  brought  up  at  the  same  time,  one  by  each  bird.  The  best  size  for  each  nest  should 
be  io  to  12  inches  square.  It  might  be  increased  slightly  in  length,  say  2 inches. 

Pigeons  require  plenty  of  water, 
and,  if  confined,  should  be  provided 
with  an  earthen  poultry  fountain  in  pref- 
erence to  the  open  receptacle  of  much 
splash,  feathers  and  general  filth.  If 
each  tier  of  nests  be  projected  one 
beyond  the  other,  there  is  better  protec- 
tion from  the  weather  and  less  liability 
of  a front-door  “scrap”  than  if  they 
be  placed  in  on  a single  vertical  plane 
(see  Fig.  51).  The  lobby  idea,  already 
referred  to,  will  be  found  to  save  the 
scattering  of  filth  to  a large  extent, 
whereas  the  usual  projecting  and  indi- 
vidual shelf  invites  it. 

The  automobile  house  is  little  more  than  a single  room  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  machine,  with  perhaps  a closet  or  two.  It  is  best  that  the  closets 
should  be  removed  from  the  main  room  and  the  whole  building  from  foundation 
to  roof  be  made  absolutely  fireproof.  It  should  be  well  lighted.  If  gasoline  be 
used  for  fuel,  the  tank  should  be  isolated  and  on  the  line  of  the  drive.  In  no  case 
should  it  be  in  connection  with  any  other  building. 

Where  one  is  compelled  to  rely  upon  a private  supply  of  ice  he  must  pro- 
vide for  its  storage.  The  ice  houses  of  the  Penobscot  River,  Maine,  are  built 
with  hollow  walls  filled  with  sawdust  and  ventilated  at  the  top.  The  private 
affair  may  be  made  in  like  manner.  Its  ventilation  may  be  at  the  gable  peaks 
and  under  the  eaves;  these  vents  should 
be  screened,  not  for  fear  of  mosquitoes, 
but  to  exclude  birds,  rats,  etc.  Some- 
times the  ice  house  may  be  partially  dug 
into  a bank,  but  at  all  events  it  should 
have  a bottom  composed  of  small,  loose 
stones  perhaps  a foot  thick,  with  a 
blind  drain  leading  from  it  to  carry  off 
the  water  from  the  melting  ice.  The 
doors  should  extend  from  bottom  to  top 
in  sections,  that  the  easy  storage  of  ice 
may  be  accomplished.  It  is  needless  to 
state  that  the  natural  shelter  of  trees 
should  be  sought  in  every  case,  as  aid- 
ing materially  to  retard  the  melting  of 
ice.  Ice  is  ordinarily  packed  in  saw- 
dust and  sometimes  in  straw;  it  should 
be  thoroughly  done;  of  the  two  agents 

the  Sawdust  IS  perhaps  to  be  preferred.  Pigeon  house  in  stable  at  Southport,  Conn. 


Stable  at  Woodmere,  L.  I.  Cost,  $4,500.  On  the  second  floor  there  are  four  rooms  and  bath  The  ideal  treatment  of  the  barn  and  courtyard  problem.  Roos  & Booraem,  architects 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc.  263 


Boathouses  were  not  originally  designed  to  play  billiards  in,  although  the 
billiard  room,  den  or  gymnasium  may  be,  each  or  collectively,  a part  of  the 
entertaining  feature  of  the  building.  That  there  should  be  a guest  room  of  some 
sort  goes  without  saying,  and  naturally  the  style  and  decoration  should  be  of  the 
most  informal  and  comfortable  sort.  It 
may  or  not  have  heat,  although  its 
installation  would  never  be  regretted. 

When  one  thinks  of  the  boathouse 
the  balcony  idea  is  naturally  associated. 

That  it  may  be  made  a feature  of  great 
comfort  and  utility,  as  well  as  a deco- 
rative possibility,  is  not  to  be  disputed. 

The  boathouse  from  the  standpoint 
of  its  uses  demands  dressing  rooms, 
toilet  and  bathroom,  to  make  it  com- 
plete as  well  as  to  add  to  the  general 
comfort  and  utility. 

The  ordinary  boat  landing  is  the 
“float,”  reached  by  a gangway.  Row- 
boats are  ordinarily  moored  to  the 
float  or  pulled  upon  it  if  desired,  while 
sailboats,  motor  boats  or  other  large 
craft  are  anchored  clear.  Floats  may 
be  secured  in  still  water  which  is  nat- 
urally free  from  tides  by  anchoring  or  by 
the  use  of  piles.  A convenient  method 
of  anchoring  a small  float  is  to  make 
the  outer  anchors  of  two  strong  wooden 
boxes,  iron  or  wire  bound.  The  wire 
guy  is  fastened  through  two  holes  bored 
in  the  middle  of  one  of  the  long  sides.  This  box,  when  filled  with  stones  and 
sunk,  will  be  found  to  be  a fairly  secure  anchor.  The  problem  of  getting  this 
heavy  weight  out  into  deep  water  is  at  first  sight  a considerable  undertaking;  it 
is,  however,  comparatively  easy.  Take  fairly  strong  rope  and  attach  it  to  each 
corner  of  the  box  securely,  and  bring  the  four  pieces  together  above  the  box  and 
fasten  so  that  the  box  may  be  hung  from  this  support.  Put  this  overboard  from 
the  stern  of  a boat  and  allow  enough  supporting  rope  to  keep  the  top  of  the  box 
under  water,  a position  which  it  will  readily  reach  if  a few  stones  are  put  into  it. 
Having  provided  the  top  of  the  box  with  a partial  cover  around  the  four  sides, 
allowing  an  opening  in  the  centre  large  enough  to  put  the  stones  through,  rill 
the  box  from  the  supply  of  stones  in  the  boat.  As  the  weight  of  stones  is  con- 
siderably less  under  water  than  it  is  if  exposed,  a considerable  anchor  may  be 
made  in  this  way.  When  filled  the  box  may  be  rowed  to  any  point  desired,  the 
guy  straightened  and  pulled  taut,  and  the  anchor  placed  by  cutting  the  rope. 
It  is  also  possible  to  construct  a boat  anchorage  in  the  aforesaid  manner. 

In  quick  water  and  tides  the  pile  is  the  best  retainer  for  the  float.  The  float 


Old  Colonial  gates  at  Salem,  Mass.  A good  example  of 
wood  design,  in  which  the  sweep  of  the  carriage  gates  is  con- 
tinued in  the  smaller  gate.  The  iron  work,  however,  sits  rather 
awkwardly  upon  the  posts.  Cost  about  $75. 


264  The  Country  House 

rises  and  falls  with  the  water,  and  is  held  in  place  by  two  or  more  piles.  This 
use  of  the  float  is  the  common  method,  which  has  the  disadvantage  of  having  to 
be  entirely  unshipped  and  removed  at  the  end  of  the  season  and  put  down  at 
the  beginning  of  the  next.  This  is  no  mammoth  undertaking,  and  yet  any  sav- 
ing method  that  works  as  well  is  better. 

There  are  cases  where  the  cutting  out  of  a portion  of  the  bank  or  shore  or 
the  straddling  of  the  house  across  a creek  or  inlet  gives  one  a chance  to  keep  the 


lighter  boats  below  the  house,  which  is  a 


Fie.  52.  Sketch  for  a combined  boat  and  bath  house.  The 
latter  could  be  omitted  without  hurt  to  the  former 


good  arrangement.  It  also  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  taking  up  less  room  in  the 
water,  which  may  be  of  considerable 
moment  in  the  consideration  of  a small 
stream.  Fig.  52  shows  such  an  arrange- 
ment, designed  to  harbour  a small 
launch  and  a rowboat.  The  gangway, 
hinged  to  the  rear  platform,  rises  and 
falls  with  the  water,  and  in  winter  is 
drawn  up  by  means  of  a tackle  and 
secured  to  the  crossbeam  of  the  floor 
above.  The  gates  which  close  the  two 
openings  make  the  boats  more  secure 
from  the  fancies  of  the  light-fingered 
public,  as  well  as  serving  to  break  the 
force  of  any  rough  water  outside. 
This  plan  shows  also  a small  swimming 
pool  connected  with  the  boathouse,  but 
each  is  so  entirely  complete  in  itself 
that  they  could  be  separated  with 
the  need  of  but  little  change  in  the 
planning  of  each. 

Wherever  the  natural  conditions 
warrant  the  bath  house,  it  may  be 
considered  in  two  ways:  First  as  a free 

and  independent  structure;  or,  second, 
it  may  be  so  planned  as  to  form  a 
shelter  and  covering  for  the  swimming 
pool.  In  this  latter  case  the  sides  and 
top  should  be  of  glass,  that  the  otherwise 
cold  water  and  atmosphere  may  be 
tempered  (see  Fig.  52).  Some  of  the 
Northern  localities  demand  this.  The 
bath  house  may  be  simple  or  elaborate, 
but  it  should  contain  dressing  rooms 
at  least,  with  adjacent  corridor;  it  is 
best  that  the  dressing  rooms  do  not  open 
directly  outdoors.  The  more  elaborate 
structure  may  contain  heat,  bathroom, 


266 


The  Country  House 


Boathouse  at  Southport,  Long  Island,  used  for  the  winter  hous- 
ing of  a launch 


toilet,  lounging  room  and  sun  parlour,  all  of  which  are  natural  adjuncts  under  certain 
conditions.  The  bath  house  can  then  be  made  a thing  of  some  comfort  and  attraction. 

Although  the  near  presence  of  pond  or  stream  often  offers  excellent  bathing, 

there  are  times  when  natural  conditions 
! ‘ make  the  home  swimming  pool  possible 

and  advisable,  from  the  standpoint  of 
privacy.  As  is  usual  with  our  Northern 
climate,  the  untempered  conditions  of 
the  water  are  such  as  to  make  outdoor 
bathing  a sort  of  daredevil  feat  rather 
than  a pleasure.  The  artificial  pool, 
then,  solves  the  problem,  inasmuch  as 
through  it  the  temperature  of  the  water 
can  be  largely  controlled.  If  situated 
on  the  coast  or  on  tidewater,  your  pool 
can  be  an  offshoot  from  the  source  of 
water  supply  (see  Fig.  52)  or  separate, 
as  desired.  In  either  case  the  pool  may 
be  filled  at  flood  tide  and  retained  and 
warmed  by  the  sun;  in  this  it  is  necessary  to  utilise  an  enclosing  wall  to  cut  off 
the  wind.  Whether  or  no  this  wall  be  roofed  with  glass  is  a question  depending 
entirely  on  existing  conditions. 

If  one  happens  to  have  a clear  brook  crossing  the  estate,  he  is  most  fortunate. 
The  pool  can  be  made  directly  a part  of  the  watercourse  by  damming,  but  the 
objection  to  this  is  that  running  water  of  this  sort  is  very  likely  to  be  spring  fed 
and  thus  cold,  and  that  the  current  may  be  more  or  less  objectionable.  It  is 
better  that  the  pool  in  this  case  be  partially  or  wholly  removed  from  the  course 

of  the  brook;  the  water  is  easier  warmed 
in  this  way. 

One  method  of  constructing  the 
isolated  and  brook-fed  pool  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  53.  The  pool  may  be  located 
near  or  at  some  distance  from  the  water- 
course, and  may  be  slightly  higher  or  on 
a level,  as  conditions  will  allow;  the  low 
problem  obviates  the  question  of  raising 
the  water,  which,  however,  can  often  be 
easily  done  by  aid  of  a hydraulic  ram. 
The  walls  are  built  of  rough  field  stone, 
laid  in  ordinary  foundation  mortar,  with 
the  exception  of  the  inner  stonework 
and  lining,  in  which  hydraulic  cement 
is  used.  The  bottom  is  likewise  of 
stone.  The  stone  used  for  the  inside 
of  walls  and  upper  course  of  bottom  should  be  of  smaller  size  than  the  rest,  to 
effect  a better  handling  of  material,  but  the  whole  wall  should  be  well  bonded, 


Fig.  53. 


Plan  and  section  of  a swimming  pool  fed  from  a brook 
or  stream.  Might  cost  from  $600  to  $900 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 


267 


Gate  lodge  at  “ Pine  Banks,”  Malden,  Mass. 


carried  below  frost,  and  plastered  on  the  outside  after  the  manner  of  ordinary  house 
foundations.  Another  method  would  be  to  construct  the  wall  entirely  of  cement. 

Four  to  eight  inch  water  pipes  are  used  to  bring  the  water  from  the  brook  and 
for  the  overflow  and 
outlet.  Water  gates 
are  provided  in  inlet 
and  outlet  pipes  so 
that  the  pool  may 
be  filled  and  empti- 
ed at  pleasure.  In 
this  way  a constant 
flow  of  water  may 
be  had,  water  may 
be  admitted  and 
allowed  to  set  and 
warm,  the  depth  re- 
duced for  the  young- 
sters, and  the  pool 
emptied  and  clean- 
ed. It  is  important 
to  remember  that 
the  inlet  and  outlet 
pipes  should  be  of 

exactly  the  same  size,  and  the  overflow  main  from  the  tank  to  the  brook  a trifle  larger. 

In  the  problem  where  the  possible  level  of  the  brook,  after  damming, 
reaches  the  required  level  in  the  pool,  the  pool  and  all  its  connections  should  be 
built  first  and  the  dam  afterward.  This  will  simplify  the  work  to  a considerable 
extent,  as  thus  the  problem  of  dealing  with  running  water  is  in  a measure  obvi- 
ated. It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  dam,  if  on  a level  with  the  water  in  the 
pool,  should  be  above  the  level  of  the  brook  below  by  a height  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  pool  plus  a couple  of  feet  or  so. 

If  such  be  not  the  case  the  water  cannot 
be  drained  entirely  from  the  pool,  and 
thus  its  thorough  cleaning  becomes  a 
more  complicated  matter. 

The  gate  lodge  is  not  a nocturnal 
retreat  for  the  man  who  dare  not  go 
home,  although  it  may  perhaps  have 
been  used  for  such  purposes  at  times. 

It  forms  a sort  of  advance  guard  for  the 
house,  and  is  often  considered  as  part  of 
the  gateway  composition.  It  is  occu- 
pied by  the  caretaker  of  the  estate,  Ice  house  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  attached  to  the  house  motive 

ordinarily,  and  is  thus  a small  cottage 

suitable  for  domestic  occupation.  Thus  considered,  it  should  have  no  real  back, 
as  an  all-round  view  is  usually  gotten  from  some  point  or  other.  Such  things  as 


268 


The  Country  House 


Old  gates  at  Medford,  Mass.  An  example  of  the  classic  influ- 
ence in  wood.  Cost  about  $100 


may  be  necessary  and  unsightly  should  be  enclosed  within  a small  kitchen  yard. 
Many  examples  of  the  English  thatch  cottage  are  excellent  suggestions  for  the 

lodge.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  gate 
lodge  is  used  so  comparatively  Little, 
and  then  only  on  the  largest  estates, 
and  its  purpose  is  so  simple  and  on 
ordinary  house  lines,  that  its  further 
discussion  would  he  of  little  interest  or 
instruction. 

Nowadays  the  question  with  the 
householder  is  whether  he  will  economise 
on  lencing  and  open  up  his  grounds  to 
the  tender  considerations  of  the  public, 
or  whether  he  will  build  a barrier  of 
sufficient  formidableness  to  reserve  a 
small  fraction  of  his  private  estate  for 
his  own  personal  use. 

It  is  far  from  necessary  to  go  into 
a lengthy  argument  to  prove  that  the 
public  at  large  will  make  common  prop- 
erty of  anything  foolishly  left  exposed. 
It  cares  nothing  for  an  edge  stone;  a few  will  respect  a hedge  or  low  wall,  and  a 
slightly  larger  percentage  will  not  climb  a picket  fence,  owing  to  the  difficulty 
involved.  There  are  those,  however,  who  will  get  on  the  other  side,  even  if  they 
have  to  resort  to  an  axe  or  a scaling  ladder;  this  class  can  he  quietly  killed  and 
buried  without  awakening  any  great  protest  from  the  outside  world. 

As  it  is  believed  that  privacy  is  the  fundamental  basis 
upon  which  the  existence  of  private  grounds  depends,  the  edge 
stone  or  curb  is  hardly  worthy  of  consideration. 

1 he  next  step  is  the  wall  (see  Fig.  54).  T his  is 
usually  laid  in  rough  field  stone,  quarry-faced  ashlar  or 
brick.  All  such  work  should  be  laid  in  one-third  cement 
mortar,  owing  to  its  exposure  to  the  weather;  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  joints  are  weather  struck,  in  the 
case  of  rough  stone,  so  that  water  will  not  run  into  the 
wall.  1 he  foundation  of  all  walls  and  gate  posts  should 
extend  to  from  3 to  5 feet  below  grade  to  avoid  heaving 
from  frost,  and  should  he  set  on  footing  stones,  projecting 
at  least  4 to  6 inches  on  either  side  of  the  wall.  Like  the 
house  foundation,  there  should  he  no  projecting  parts  below 
ground  for  the  frost  to  get  a purchase  on. 

The  treatment  of  the  top  of  the  wall  is  an  important 
consideration.  In  the  cases  of  ashlar-faced  stone  and 
brick,  a stone  cap  is  necessary.  This  should  project  an 
inch  or  so  beyond  the  faces  of  the  wall,  and,  if  flat,  can  be 
made  of  slabs  of  slate  or  North  River  stone.  It  should 


S3 

m 

y 

II 

tI 


1 


yijiy 

III/-- 


Fig.  54.  Sections  of  simple 
wooden  picket  fence  and  rough 
stone  wall 


a.  Fence  post 

b.  Top  rail 

c.  Bottom  rail 

d.  Picket 


e.  Base  board 

f.  Gate  post 

g.  Cap  stone 

h.  Footing  stone 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc.  269 

not  be  laid  absolutely  level,  however,  but  have  a slight  pitch,  in  order  to  shed 
water.  This  pitch  should  be  observed  on  all  exposed  work  where  the  flat  effect  is 
intended.  The  cap  stone  is  sometimes 
cut  with  a pitch  both  ways,  like  a low 
roof.  The  foregoing  treatments  look 
well,  but  on  a low  wall  the  ever-watch- 
ful  public  is  apt  to  roost  in  flocks,  if  the 
place  be  particularly  inviting;  and  it  is 
perhaps  Setter  that  the  wall  should  be 
used  as  a foundation  for  a wooden  or 
iron  fence,  a most  durable  and  effective 
treatment  (see  Royal  House  gate). 

The  high  wall  generally  takes  care 
of  itself,  being  more  or  less  hard  to 
climb,  but  it  is  expensive  and  beyond 
the  reach  of  common  mortals.  Such 
walls  are  frequently  topped  with  broken 
glass  bottles  set  in  the  cement  in  such  a way  as  not  to  show  from  below,  and  are 
ugly  customers  for  the  trespasser.  The  low,  rough  stone  wall  is  often  treated 
with  upright  pointed  stones  as  a coping,  which  effectively  discourages  the  roosting 
public,  although  it  is  readily  climbed. 

In  the  building  of  the  all-wood  fence,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  bases  and 
all  other  woodwork  other  than  the  rough  posts  (which  must  be  set  in  the  soil) 
should  set  clear  of  the  ground,  otherwise  they  will  be  sure  to  decay  (see  Fig.  54). 
Wooden  posts  should  have  the  footing  ends  either  charred  or  tarred  and  set  upon 
a bed  of  small,  loose  stones.  It  is  better  even  if  they  be  first  charred  and  then 
covered  with  tar  to  from  2 to  3 inches 
above  the  soil.  Do  not  fill  in  about  a 
post  with  stone  unless  you  wish  to 
injure  your  chances  of  the  hereafter,  as 
the  removal  of  such  stones  is  not  to  be 
undertaken  by  church  members.  Other- 
wise than  this  it  makes  a good  job. 

Cedar,  which  is  lasting,  should  be  used 
for  the  ordinary  post.  Chestnut  is  per- 
haps better,  its  lasting  qualities  being 
demonstrated  in  the  old  rail  fences  of 
familiar  acquaintance.  In  localities 
where  the  locust  post  can  be  had  it 
should  be  used;  it  has  no  superior.  As 
in  the  case  with  stone  or  brick  foun- 
dations, the  fence  posts  should  be  set 
well  below  the  frost. 

1 he  common  form  of  wooden  fence 
has  the  usual  rough  post  as  a support, 
and  the  top  and  bottom  rails  with  a 


Garden  gate  of  Royal  House,  Medford,  Mass.  A simple 
wood  and  brick  treatment,  having  many  practical  advantages. 
Cost  about  $35 


270  The  Country  House 

crown  mould  or  cap  across  the  top  of  the  pickets.  Other  types  make  a feature  of 
the  posts  by  boxing  them  in.  There  are  numerous  other  forms  of  the  picket  fence, 
and  other  forms  besides  that  of  the  picket;  the  range  is  considerable. 

All  finish  wood  should  be  of  good,  sound  white  pine  or  the  above-mentioned 
chestnut.  Spruce  is  sometimes  used  for  rails,  but  is  not  recommended  for  the 
better  work.  The  picket  fence  is  a simple  and  effective  form  of  wooden  fence, 

The  ordinary  form  of  this  fence,  with 
plain  pine  pickets  4 feet  high,  would 
cost  from  thirty-five  to  forty  cents  per 
running  foot.  The  paint  would  cost, 
laid,  about  three  and  one-half  cents  per 
square  foot  additional. 

Clay  is  a very  bad  soil,  as  it  is  apt  to 
heave  and  throw  the  fence  out  of  line.  In 
the  case  of  wood,  the  posts  can  be  driven 
down  again  with  a maul,  with  fair  suc- 
cess, provided  the  construction  is  such 
that  the  top  of  the  post  can  be  gotten  at. 
In  the  case  of  stone  or  brick  heaving 
is  not  so  noticeable,  but  when  it  does 
occur  badly  there  is  no  remedy  but  to  rebuild.  If  the  stratum  of  clay  is  thin 
the  foundation  should  be  set  below  it.  This  will  obviate  much  of  the  trouble. 

Rustic  work  in  some  cases  can  be  used  to  advantage  and  be  rendered  very 
effective.  Its  real  drawback  is  merely  a question  of  durability.  The  effect 
depends  on  its  original  condition,  and  it  cannot  be  repaired  without  showing  the 
patch.  All  butts  should  be  painted  to  repel  moisture  in  the  pores  of  the  wood. 

Hedges  make  good  screens  when  placed  a little  back  of  an  open  fence;  but 
where  they  are  used  alone,  and  unless  they  are  planted  with  a wire  fence  next  the 
roots  of  the  shrubs,  thus  giving  the  grown  hedge  a nice  core,  they  are  easily  broken 
and  destroyed.  A barbed-wire  fence  used  as  a core  to  such  a hedge  makes  an 
effective  barrier  and  is  a good  discourager  of  small  boys. 

If  you  wish  to  spend  the  most  of  your  time  in  chasing  stray  animals  out  of 
your  flower  beds,  small  boys  out  of  your  orchards,  and  in  persuading  the  well- 
meaning  public  that  your  main  driveway  is  not  a town  road  or  entrance  to  a 
park  or  asylum  for  the  insane,  just  build  your  entrance  without  gates.  On  the 
principle  that  every  doorway  should  have  a door,  it  would  seem  better  that  every 
gateway  should  have  a gate.  It  can  be  left  open  or  shut  at  will,  but  its  entire 
absence  renders  the  fence  useless. 

Gate  posts  of  whatever  material  or  design  should  be  rigid  enough  to  support 
the  gates,  both  open  and  shut,  and  the  same  general  principles  of  construction 
observed  as  in  the  fence.  A gate  post  out  of  plumb  is  not  interesting,  either  to  look 
upon  or  to  swing  a gate  from.  The  gate  post  is  usually  boxed  in  around  a rough 
supporting  post  sunk  in  the  ground.  It  has  a cap  and  base,  after  the  manner  of 
some  stair  newels,  and  is  more  or  less  of  a decorative  feature  in  the  compo- 
sition. In  less  important  gateways  the  post  is  often  turned.  The  stone  or  brick 
post  follows  the  same  general  forms,  and  should  be  solid  enough  not  to  tip  over. 


especially  if  the  picket  tops  are  pointed. 


Gate  lodge  at  Lawrence  Park,  BronxviUe,  N.  Y. 


271 


Outbuildings,  Gateways,  Etc. 

Gates  themselves  should  be  braced  so  that  the  sagging  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  I hey  should  also  have  some  sort  of  a rest  to  take  off  the  strain  when 
open  or  shut.  A piece  of  bound  stone,  8 inches  square  and  set  flush  with  the  centre 
of  the  driveway,  with  a mortise  to  receive  the  bolt  (fastened  to  the  gate  stile),  of 
a pattern  which  will  lock  and  at  the  same  time  support  the  gates,  wdll  be  found 
effective  in  the  case  of  the  double  gate  when  it  is  closed.  The  same  thing  can 
be  used  to  hold  it  open.  Of  course  the  small  foot  gate,  being  narrow,  does  not 
usually  require  this. 

I he  gate  is  usually  made  fast  with  a special  latch,  and  sometimes  embellished 
with  a knob.  In  the  latter  case  the  knob  should  be  oval  rather  than  round,  so 
as  to  afford  a good  hold  in  its  manipulation  for  the  hand. 

Gates  and  fences  should  be  so  designed  as  to  exclude  all  dogs  and  poultry,  as 
much  damage  can  be  done  to  flower  beds  and  the  like  through  their  visitations,  and 
to  this  end  should  be  close  to  the  ground  and  the  pickets  set  close  together. 

Posts  to  carriageways  should  always  be  protected  by  stone  or  iron  guards 
placed  against  the  Bases  on  the  inner  or  jamb  side.  This  will  prevent  careless 
and  inexperienced  drivers  from  enlarging  the  gateway  and  carrying  off  samples 
of  your  gate  posts  on  their  wheel  hubs. 

Ornamental  ironwork  is  often  used  to  support  a lantern  over  the  gateway.  A 
lantern  is  a valuable  accessory  on  a dark  night  and  may  save  a wreck  of  rig  and 
anatomy,  as  without  it  one  may  try  to  drive  through  the  fence  at  some  unlikely  spot. 

Climbing  plants  are  frequently  used  to  beautify  a gateway.  If  they  are  of  a 
flowering  variety  they  should  be  well  within  the  grounds  or  high  out  of  reach. 
The  public,  who  will  respect  your  purse,  will  take  all  that  it  can  carry  and  come 
back  for  more,  neglecting,  however,  to  mention  it  at  the  confessional.  It  is  not  the 
loss  of  a flower  or  so,  but  the  continuance  of  it,  which  destroys  the  looks  and  shape 
of  the  bush.  Ivy  and  woodbine  are  seldom  molested,  and  can  be  used  wTith 
good  results  on  rough  stonework.  Frequently  a rose  or  wistaria  arbour  running 
from  the  inside  of  a foot  entrance  can  be  made  a thing  of  beauty  and  reasonably 
safe  at  the  same  time. 

Remember  one  thing:  that  all  good  bits  of  decorative  design  should  not  be 
too  heavily  laden  with  creepers.  Such  treatment  is  far  worse  folly  than  a 
woman’s  silk  petticoat — you  haven’t  even  the  rustle. 


An  interesting  circular  barn  and  stable.  James  Hunt,  architect 


The  grand  old  summer  house  of  the  Colonel  Isaac  Royal  estate,  Medford,  Mass.  This,  which  is  perhaps  the  finest  old  Colonia. 

example  in  the  country,  has  been  demolished 


A delightfully  informal  Italian  pergola 


CHAPTER  XV 

Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 

LTHOUGH  the  subject  of  gardens  is  generally  considered  as  a 
thing  apart  from  the  house,  and  is,  in  the  ground  that  it  covers, 
much  too  bulky  for  thorough  treatment  in  this  work,  yet  a brief 
description  of  the  relations  of  gardens  to  house  and  of  their 
several  types  may  be  of  interest,  and  is  far  from  out  of  place. 

The  first  statement,  that  the  garden  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  a thing  apart  from  the  house,  is  unfortunately  true. 
The  house  having  been  built,  the  garden  is  then  considered,  and  the  owner  makes 
a cast  about  to  find  a suitable  place  to  put  it — just  as  if  it  were  a prize  cow  to  be 
pastured.  Now,  if  it  be  desirable  that  your  house  be  set  in  surroundings  as  foreign 
as  if  they  belonged  to  your  neighbour,  follow  the  lines  of  the  above  course  and 
you  will  gain  your  end.  If,  on  the  contrary,  you  desire  that  your  house  and  other 
buildings  shall  form  with  your  landed  accessories  one  whole  and  complete  com- 
position clear  to  the  limit  of  its  bounds,  then  it  is  highly  important  that  the 
scheme  of  such  a composition  be  thoroughly  thought  out  and  decided  upon  before 
the  building  site  is  disturbed  in  any  way.  it  is  important,  too,  that  the  general 
layout  be  done  either  by  the  house  architect  and  landscape  architect  acting  together, 
or  by  one  party  who  thoroughly  understands  both  professions.  Unless  this  is  done, 

273 


274 


The  Country  House 

the  gardening  is  handicapped  by  the  house,  and  the  house  does  not  have  the  advan- 
tage of  the  garden  setting  to  aid  in  its  planning.  The  service  that  the  two 
professions  can  render  to  one  another  at  the  start  is  not  to  be  underestimated. 


The  Blair  garden  from  point  “ B ” on  plan.  The  tea  house  is  placed  in  the  corner  to  get  this  view  of  the  mountain 


Plan  of  Blair  garden  at  Bar  Harbor.  Much  of  the  actual  plan  effect  is  gotten  from  the 
terrace  of  the  house,  which  is  considerably  above  the  garden  level 


Often  it  results  in 
practically  the  saving 
of  the  whole  scheme. 

The  trouble  with 
the  ordinary  land- 
scape architect  is  that 
his  understanding  of 
architecture  is  so  com- 
paratively limited  that 
his  accessories  are 
usually  far  from  satis- 
factory. T hus,  in 
his  attempt  to  solve 
the  complete  layout 
which  should  thor- 
oughly harmonise 
with  the  various 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


275 


buildings  to  be  considered,  he  is  handicapped  at  the  start.  While  on  the  other 
hand,  he  of  the  architectural  profession  who  plunges  blindly  into  the  numerous 
pitfalls  of  gardening  will  make  even  a worse  botch  of  it,  if  the  thing  be  possible. 

In  the  old  exam- 
ples the  complete 
outlay  was  done  by 
the  architect,  and 
the  venerable  monu- 
ments he  has  left  to 
his  genius  testify  to 
the  success  of  the 
single  brain.  How- 
ever, let  the  designer 
call  himself  what  he 
may  so  long  as  his 
understanding  of 
these  two  (unfor- 
tunately separated) 
professions  shall 
efiable  him  to  plan 
and  execute  the 
harmonious  whole. 

Let  us  hope  that  the 
present  tendency  to 
reunite  these 
kindred  arts  shall 
result  in  the  future 
designer  becoming 

a master  of  both.  This  has  already  been  done 
to  a limited  extent,  and  though  it  has  been 
attended  by  many  failures  it  has  also  produced 
most  excellent  results. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  gardens  as  being 
the  whole  exterior  outlay  of  the  estate,  and  this  is 
as  it  should  be.  The  common  usage  which  distin- 
guishes between  landscape  gardening  and  formal 
gardening  is  merely  an  attempt  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  informal  and  formal  treatments.  The 
naturalistic  arrangement  of  trees,  drives,  etc.,  is 
just  as  much  a gardening  problem  as  is  the  regular 
and  more  artificial  “garden.” 

The  former  treatment  is  as  a general  rule  much 
more  apt  to  be  successful  as  well  as  a far  easier 
problem,  inasmuch  as  it  follows  more  closely  the 
lines  of  natural  conditions;  while  the  latter,  depart- 
ing quite  frequently  in  a considerable  degree  from  Japanese  fountain  in  the  Biair  garden 


Garden  of  Mrs.  D.  C.  Blair  at  Bar  Harbor,  Me.  View  taken  from  point  “A”  on  plan,  show 
ing  the  fountain  and  tea  house.  Andrews,  Jaques  & Rantoul,  architects 


276 


The  Country  House 


natural  models  and  depending  almost  entirely  on  the  poor  invention  of  man,  in- 
volves the  most  careful  thought  and  study  and  runs  a greater  risk  of  absolute  failure. 
The  most  important  principle  governing  the  laying  out  and  the  perfecting  of 

an  estate  is  that,  whatever 
be  the  treatment,  it  should 
always  look  to  be  a natural 
part  of  the  landscape,  with 
an  undisputed  right  of 
existence  in  the  locality  in 
which  it  has  been  placed. 
If  this  is  not  observed,  it 
will  swear  at  everything 
within  sight,  leading  a pro- 
fane and  unnatural  life  so 
long  as  it  shall  exist. 

With  very  few  excep- 
tions, the  formal  gardens 
of  this  country  are  lacking 
in  the  above  respect;  they 
have  no  connecting  link 
with  external  characteris- 
tics. There  are  two  ways 
of  obviatingthis  unfortunate 
and  false  condition:  first, 

by  making  the  garden  con- 
form strictly  with  the  land- 
scape, so  that  in  looking 
from  one  upon  the  other 
the  sensation  shall  be  one 
of  pleasing  transition;  and 
second,  by  enclosing  an  en- 
entirely  foreign  or  artificial 
treatment  in  a suitable  en- 
closure of  trees  or  shrubs 
in  such  a manner  that  both 
the  garden  and  the  natural 
landscape  cannot  be  seen 
one  from  the  other  or  both 

at  the  same  time,  either  from  the  normal  ground  level  or  from  an  elevation. 

A most  excellent  garden  screen  is  that  composed  of  silver  or  Lombardy  poplars. 
This  tree  is  naturally  of  regular  shape  and  requires  little  pruning.  It  is  also  a rapid 
grower.  The  spruce,  pine  or  cedar  may  also  be  used.  The  treatment  is  perfectly 
legitimate,  and  if  rightly  handled  the  beholder  suffers  no  shock  in  passing  from  one 
condition  to  the  other.  The  garden  in  fact  becomes  a delightful  glimpse  of  another 
world — a bit  of  fairyland.  In  this  way  a garden  on  the  lines  of  the  Japanese  can 
be  introduced  without  danger  of  interfering  with  the  general  scheme  of  design. 


Garden  steps. 


Estate  of  Mr.  Frank  Squires,  Greenwich,  Conn. 
Wilson  Eyre,  architect 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


277 


While  this  suggestion  as  to  the  installa- 
tion of  the  isolated  garden  of  foreign  char- 
acter is  the  only  way  in  which  it  can  be 
successfully  treated,  yet  the  usual  and  per- 
haps the  best  method  is  to  consider  the 
garden  in  composition  with  the  house,  and 
as  such  in  connection  and  in  harmony 
with  it.  1 his  does  not  prevent,  however, 
the  existence  of  the  garden  of  foreign 
character  in  another  part  of  the  estate,  but 
such  a garden  is  usually  a toy. 

This  consideration  of  the  garden  and 
house  as  one  motive  would  seem  to  be  the 
correct  one  where  only  one  garden  is 
contemplated.  With  intelligent  treatment 
the  effect  of  the  house  from  the  garden, 
and  garden  from  the  house,  introduce  so 
many  features  in  the  way  of  accessory  that 
both  are  greatly  enhanced  by  the  associa- 
tion. Naturally,  the  whole  being  con- 
sidered as  one  composition,  the  archi- 
tectural rules  governing  line,  scale,  balance, 
proportions  and  colour  apply  to  the  garden 
as  well  as  to  the  house,  and  naturally,  too, 
these  effects  are  gotten  largely  through 
the  medium  of  lesser  architectural  motives, 
commonly  called  garden  accessories.  Not 
only  do  these  accessories  serve  the  above 
purpose,  but  also  through  their  agency  are 
the  garden  masses  tied  together,  as  well 
as  to  the  house. 

We  naturally  first  consider  the  garden 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  plan,  and  the 
less  complex  this  may  be  the  better  will  be 
the  final  result.  It  is  important,  too,  that 
it  should  always  take  advantage  of  and 
mould  itself  upon  the  natural  conditions 
offered  by  the  site  and  the  visible  sugges- 
tions beyond  its  bounds. 

Perfect  as  the  plan  may  be,  it  may 
fall  flat  in  the  faulty  disposition  of  ac- 
cessories or  through  poor  planting,  or 
through  both.  Accessories  being  a more 
or  less  permanent  feature,  are  more  difficult 
to  rectify  in  case  of  failure  than  is  the 
planting.  This  last,  considering  the  diffi- 


Garden  wall  at  Greenwich,  Conn.  Estate  of  Mr.  Frank 
Squires.  Wilson  Eyre,  architect 


Pergola  and  sun-dial  on  estate  of  Mr.  Frank  Squires, 
Greenwich,  Conn.  Wilson  Eyre,  architect 


The  Country  House 


culties  attending  the  changing  of  trees,  shrubs  and  hedges,  is  more  flexible  in 
the  fact  that  yearly  planting  of  flowers  makes  radical  changes  possible  without 

an  overthrow  of  the  whole  garden 


Garden  gate  at  Glen  Ridge,  N.  J. 
H.  Van  Buren  Magonigle,  architect 


Hermes,  at  “Maxwell  Court” 


scheme.  Every  one  of  us,  be  he 
Christian  or  heathen,  should  offer  up 
one  prayer  of  gratitude  for  the  blessing 
he  receives  in  the  flowers.  There  are 
few  too  depraved  not  to  appreciate 
them,  and  there  are  few  too  honest  to 
steal  them  if  a favourable  opportunity 
presents  itself.  This  general  love  of 
flowers  has  imparted  to  the  American 
garden  its  greatest  source  of  beauty  and 
charm — its  one  human  touch.  Even 
with  flowers,  however,  the  results  of 
poor  planting  will  render  less  than  use- 
less a good  and  valuable  agent  in  the 
general  harmony  of  colour. 

While  trees  and  hedges  (not  flower- 
ing) should  be  considered  from  the 
point  of  their  size  and  shape,  they 
usually  count  as  being  permanent  green 
motives  in  the  general  design.  There 
are,  of  course,  instances  where  variations 
of  colours,  both  in  leaf  and  a limited 
period  of  bloom,  may  well  be  con- 
sidered. It  is  the  flower,  however,  that 
requires  the  most  careful  study.  Added 
to  all  ordinary  considerations  of  the  tree  and 
hedge  are  those  of  colour,  quality  and  length, 
season  of  bloom,  as  well  as  the  proportion  of  colour 
in  contact  with  possible  foliage.  With  these  many 
varying  and  passing  agents  it  is  desired  to  construct 
not  only  a colour  scheme  that  shall  be  harmonious 
for  the  entire  season,  but  an  able  accessory  which 
shall  preserve  both  the  lines  and  contour  of  the 
planting.  It  stands  to  reason  then  that  the  suc- 
cessful gardener  must  know  just  a little  of  flowers 
and  their  ways,  and  that  he  who  has  only  a general 
knowledge  is  doomed  to  certain  failure. 

As  it  is  largely  a scheme  that  is  desired,  and 
also  as  such  scheme  with  all  its  variations  is  hard 
to  carry  in  one’s  head,  the  best  method  would  be 
to  make  a colour  plan  for  each  month  of  the 
flowering  period,  which  should  show  the  propor- 
tionate areage  of  the  blossoms  to  foliage  and 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


279 


whether  the  blossoms  be  massed  or  separated.  The  transition  from  one  bloom 
to  another  should  be  carefully  noted,  so  that  no  inharmonious  note  shall  occur  in  the 
general  harmony  of  colour.  As  such  plans  are  only  valuable  as  far  as  imme- 
diate contrasts  are  concerned  and  show  what  may  occur  in  actual  perspective  (in 
the  silhouetting  of  one  mass  against  another),  it  is  well  that  a small  scale  model 
of  the  garden  be 
used  with  them,  to 
the  better  under- 
standing of  natural 
conditions.  This 
model  will  serve  also 
to  study  scale  and 
distribution  of  the 
garden  furniture. 

In  the  choice  of 
flowers,  it  would 
seem  that  wisdom 
should  tend  toward 
the  native  and  hardy 
sorts.  These  are 
numerous  enough  to 
offer  sufficient  vari- 
ety, and  are  at  the 
same  time  inexpen- 
sive, both  as  to  care 
and  initial  cost.  In 
placing,  the  most 
common  arrange- 
ment is  that  of  loca- 
ting the  taller  vari- 
eties outside  the  out- 
side walk  and  dimin- 
ishing the  average 
heights  as  we  go  to- 
ward the  centre. 

This  is  the  simple 
method,  although  in 
some  instances  it 

may  be  advisable  to  bank  them  about  some  central  or  standing  motive  like  the 
summer  house,  free  columns,  hermae  or  the  like.  Small,  isolated  groups  of  tall 
flowers  unsupported  by  some  feature  of  accessory  are  seldom  happy  effects,  and 
tend  to  break  up  and  destroy  the  simplicity  of  line  and  contour  which  is  so  effective 
in  the  well-planned  garden. 

In  the  disposal  of  colour,  white,  yellow  and  red  are  the  usual  dominant  notes 
and  can  be  used  most  effectively.  If  the  gardens  have  a particularly  interesting 
layout  of  walks,  it  can  be  emphasised  by  small  and  low  white  borders.  Either 


“ Maxwell  Court,”  Rockville,  Conn.  Looking  from  the  terrace  toward  the  garden. 
Charles  A.  Platt,  architect 


280  The  Country  House 

red  or  white  may  serve  to  strengthen  corners  and  centres,  and  it  is  almost 
imperative  that  one  or  the  other  be  used  in  a considerable  solid  mass,  to  reinforce 

the  central  feature  or  to  serve  as  a foil  to  the  same. 

In  the  combined  problem  of  house  and  garden, 
the  house  itself  is  supposed  to  count  as  the  prin- 
cipal accessory,  but  this  is  the  sense  of  two 
opposing  forces  forming  a contrast  in  their  junc- 
tion. 1 he  major  architectural  motive  in  the 
garden  proper  is  usually  located  at  the  opposite 
end  to  the  house,  in  the  centre  of  the  sides  or  less 
frequently  in  the  middle.  The  lesser  features  are 
spaced  relatively  to  the  larger  motives,  as  the 
composition  suggests. 

Italian  and  English  gardens  require  more  or 
less  accessory,  it  being  a requisite  of  the  style. 
Colonial  gardens,  on  the  contrary,  being  perhaps 
more  strictly  flower  gardens,  require  but  little  of 
this  sort  of  embellishment.  Where  the  garden  is 
modelled  after  some  distinct  style,  the  furniture 
should  be  of  that  style  or  of  the  style  from  which 
the  garden  is  derived.  Hence  the  Italian  garden, 
being  founded  on  old  Roman  and  Pompeian  lines, 
might  well  be  furnished  with  furniture  of  these 
periods  as  well  as  that  of  the  Renaissance.  A 
jumble  of  plunder  from  the  four  corners  of  the  earth  is  not  desirable  in  a garden. 
It  is  no  museum,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  frequently  treated  as  such.  The 
natural  lines  of  the  garden  suggest  emphatic  spotting  at  certain  points;  what  is 
done  beyond  this  is  superfluous  and  harmful.  If  the  top  of  the  wall  is  to  be  the 
receptacle  for  pots,  statues  or  architectural  fragments,  that  portion  below  it 
should  be  emphasised  by  either  post  or  pilaster  effect,  suggesting  that  such  fur- 
niture really  belonged  there  and  has  support. 

Of  the  numerous  types  of  garden  accessory  for  ordinary  conditions,  there 
might  be  mentioned  pergolas,  arbours,  trellises,  summer  houses,  fences,  walls, 
gates,  seats,  steps,  sun-dials,  fountains,  statuary,  pots  and  urns.  In  rare  cases 
tea  houses,  isolated  dens,  studios,  towers,  windmills,  dove-cotes,  bridges,  free 
columns  and  lanterns,  may  be  used  to  considerable  advantage.  In  the  tying  of 
the  garden  to  the  house,  several  natural  features  of  the  latter  are  used  which  in 
themselves  suggest  introduction  to  the  open  air.  Thus  the  porch,  veranda  and 
piazza,  or  their  variations,  serve  well  this  purpose,  and  at  the  same  time  make 
their  own  excuse  for  existing  more  secure  in  so  doing.  To  break  the  hard  line 
of  intersection  between  the  house  and  garden,  vines,  etc.,  may  be  used,  but  it  is 
essential  that  too  much  of  the  architectural  detail  is  not  hidden  or  the  light  cut  off 
from  the  house  by  this  treatment. 

As  the  effect  of  the  garden  is  benefited  by  being  much  lower  than  the  house 
level,  the  link  between  the  former  and  the  porch  or  kindred  motive  is  attained 
through  the  medium  of  the  terrace,  which  involves  steps  and,  perhaps,  walls  and 


A vase  at  “ Maxwell  Court 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


281 


buttresses.  The 
fact  that  the  house 
level  is  above  that 
of  the  garden  lends 
to  the  perspective  of 
the  latter,  inasmuch 
as  the  design  of 
walks, planting,  etc., 
will  count  to  better 
advantage.  This 
effect,  while  ex- 
cellent, should  never 
be  gotten  by  evi- 
dently artificial 
means,  although 
much  can  be  done 
artificially  that  does 
not  count  as  such. 

The  lines  of  the 
house  are  best  con- 
tinued by  the  use  of 
walks  or  fences,  the 
use  of  hedges  alone  being  hardly  of 
enough  contrast  to  make  an  emphatic 
line  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  while  it 
may  answer  for  the  brief  period  of  its 
bloom  if  it  be  a flowering  hedge.  1 here 
is  no  objection,  however,  to  reinforcing 
the  former  with  the  latter  if  desirable. 

The  pergola  is  of  Italian  parentage 
and,  like  its  numerous  dissatisfied 
brethren,  has  found  its  way  to  the  land 
of  freedom.  It  consists  of  a flat  lattice 
roof  supported  by  columns,  and  may 
be  a free  and  independent  motive,  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  house,  or 
perhaps  be  a composite  of  both.  Varying 
as  it  does  from  severe  classic  lines  to 
those  of  the  most  informal,  it  offers  a 
considerable  range  of  treatment.  The 
supporting  columns  may  be  of  stone, 
brick,  plaster  or  wood,  while  the  lattice 
work  is  of  the  latter  material.  Some  of 
the  less  formal  Italian  types,  in  which 
the  columns  are  made  of  rough  plaster 
of  simple  design,  with  a rough  pole 


Wall  of  entrance  court  showing  wall  fountain,  “ Maxwell  Court.”  The  oak  growth  back  of 
the  wall  forms  a most  excellent  screen  to  the  estate 


‘Maxwell  Court.”  The  garden  gate 


282 


The  Country  House 

lattice,  are  excellent  and  inexpensive  models  for  adaptation  for  our  less  formal 
houses.  They  also  have  the  advantage  of  being  possible  for  the  home  mechanic. 

This  last  form  may  be  constructed  by  building  a round  wooden  shell  about 
an  ordinary  fence  post  set  in  the  ground  in  the  usual  manner.  This  shell  can 
then  be  wire  lathed  and  rough  plastered  and  a square  2-inch  cap  placed  on  top. 
The  lateral  beams  may  be  ol  4"  x 6"  Southern  pine  set  on  edge,  and  the  lattice 
of  rough  cedar  or  birch  poles  from  2 to  3 inches  in  diameter,  as  the  case  requires. 
These  spaced  20  inches  apart,  running  crosswise  and  projecting  from  30  to  40 
inches  on  either  side  of  the  beams,  form  a support  for  the  lighter  lateral  strips 
of  like  material.  The  best  method  of  attaching  the  poles  to  the  lateral  beams  is  by 
the  use  of  hemp  rope  about  the  size  of  large  clothesline  or  slightly  larger.  Inch 
holes  bored  through  the  lateral  beams  under  the  bearings  of  the  cross  poles, 
and  about  2 inches  below  them,  will  serve  as  holes  for  the  lacings.  Use  plenty 
of  rope  and  make  parallel  windings,  and  tie  securely  on  top.  It  is  well  to  dip  the 
rope  in  raw  tar,  that  its  lasting  qualities  may  be  increased,  or  perhaps  a ready 
prepared  rope  may  be  gotten.  The  ends  of  rope  when  tied  may  be  secured  to 
the  poles  by  means  of  small  galvanised  staples.  Paint  the  ends  of  the  poles  a dull 
red  or  ochre.  Such  a pergola  might  cost  from  $5  to  $10  per  post,  and  the  beams, 
poles,  etc.,  about  one-half  more.  It  should  be  remembered  that  as  the  pergola  is 
intended  as  a support  for  vines  any  excess  of  architectural  detail  would  be  lost, 
and  that  consequently  the  most  successful  types  are  comparatively  simple. 

There  is  a well-founded  superstition  that  there  is  no  design  to  that  good  old 
relic  of  Colonial  days,  the  arbour.  But  although  the  bulk  of  the  local  examples 
have  evidently  required  little  effort  in  their  planning,  there  is  enough  outside  of  this 
which  suggests  the  charming  simplicity  of  the  Georgian  period.  This  old-time 
notion,  borrowed  from  England,  and  by  the  English  from  the  Italian  pergola,  is 
essentially  a feature  of  the  Colonial  garden  and  serves  but  one  purpose,  that  of 
primal  interests— enclosing  and  shading  a walk.  It  might  perhaps  be  built  with 
inside  lateral  seats,  if  desired,  at  a slight  increase  in  cost. 

The  arbour,  as  will  readily  be  seen,  is  a kinsman  of  the  pergola,  but  differs  from 
it  in  the  fact  that  the  sides  as  well  as  the  top  are  usually  enclosed  with  lattice. 
Thus  entirely  enclosed  by  vines,  it  frequently  offers  a pleasing  method  of  traversing 
uninteresting  space  to  that  which  is  more  interesting. 

The  common  form  has  an  elliptical  roof.  It  might  be  built  of  4 x 4-inch 
uprights,  4 x 6-inch  lateral  beams  or  plates,  with  2 x f-inch  lateral  strips  on  top. 
The  elliptical  ribs  or  rafters  could  be  of  if-inch  stock,  and  the  side  lattice  of  f or 
f inch  stock.  Such  might  be  constructed  for  $2  or  upward  per  running  foot. 

The  trellis,  once  a hackneyed,  and  commonly  an  ugly,  feature  of  the  period  that 
has  passed,  has  left  to  us  enough. that  is  suggestive  of  good  to  demonstrate  that  it 
can  be  made  a neat  and  simple  feature  of  the  garden  of  to-day.  Ordinarily  it  was 
a meaningless  vertical  contrivance  of  crisscross  slats,  but  its  possibilities  are  beyond 
this.  Although  intended  for  the  support  of  vines,  and  frequently  used  on  either 
side  of  the  front  door,  it  can  be  made  of  considerable  length,  and  may  serve  as  a 
screen  where  such  be  needed.  It  belongs,  perhaps  more  fittingly,  to  the  Colonial 
design,  and  will  probably  lend  itself  to  more  practical  use  under  such  conditions, 
although  it  is  more  or  less  used  in  English  work. 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


283 


The  summer-house  is  more  particularly  an  English  or  Colonial  accessory,  and 
is  perhaps  an  outgrowth  from  the  small  Classic  garden  temple.  On  Georgian 
lines  it  can  be  made  an  architectural  gem,  and  even  the  rustic  type  is  extremely 
interesting;  a simple  form  of  this  may  be  built  for  about  $25.  Unfortunately 
good  existing  exam- 
ples of  the  Colonial 
summer  house  are 
rare  (the  excellent 
example  shown  on 
page  272  has  been 
demolished). 

Where  used,  the 
summer-house  fre- 
quently serves  as 
the  chief  architect- 
ural embellishment 
of  the  garden,  and, 
with  the  Colonial  de- 
sign, this  was  its 
rightful  place. 

Under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances it  should 
have  a flooring  at 
least  one  step  above 
the  ground  ; the 
more  dignified  and 
upright  types  re- 
quire moreelevation. 

* 1 he  fence,  as 

associated  with  the 
garden,  is  more  pro- 
perly a balustrade, 
and  is  generally  on 

the  scale  of  stone  A side  porch  showing  the  relation  of  the  garden  to  the  house  and  method  of  tying  in 

rather  than  wood, 

even  if  constructed  of  the  latter  material.  Sometimes  used  independently,  it 
frequently  serves  as  an  attic  to  the  garden  wall,  and  more  particularly  where 
such  wall  is  high  and  used  to  retain  an  embankment.  In  such  cases  it  should  be 
secured  to  the  wall  by  anchor  irons  built  into  the  masonry. 

In  wood  its  construction  is  best  of  the  made-up  type,  that  is,  as  far  as  posts 
and  rails  are  concerned;  the  balustrades  are  of  course  turned.  A simple  form 
of  wooden  fence  could  be  built  for  from  $1.50  to  $2  per  running  foot. 

The  wall  which  serves  to  enclose  the  garden  may  be  high  or  low  as  occasion 
demands,  and  is  constructed  of  either  stone  or  brick.  Such  construction  should 
be  substantial  according  to  its  use.  The  well-laid  wall  is  often  a thing  of  beauty 
in  itself,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  advisable  to  cover  it  entirely  with  growth. 


284 


The  Country  House 


In  its  uncovered  state,  too,  it  frequently  serves  as  a flat-toned  background  for  shrubs 
or  tall  plants  like  the  sunflower,  dahlia  and  hollyhock  with  most  pleasing  effect. 

From  English  sources  comes  the  suggestion  that  a retaining  wall  of  dry-laid 
stone  may  have  planted  in  the  joints  small  flowering  plants.  Naturally  such 
specimens  as  are  indigenous  to  the  rocky  crevice  should  be  selected  for  this  pur- 
pose. There  seems, 
however,  to  be  a ten- 
dency on  the  part  of 
our  Eastern  brother 
to  overdo  the  thing 
in  a continuous 
treatment  of  the 
entire  wall,  and  it 
would  seem,  too, 
that  the  scheme  is 
good  enough  to  be 
saved  by  limitation. 
Hence  the  wall  laid 
partly  dry  and  partly 
in  mortar,  after  a 
previously  arranged 
planting  plan,  would 
save  this  excellent 
suggestion  from  be- 
coming cheap  and  commonplace.  By  the  use  of  small  and  large  stones  a greater 
or  less  area  of  colour  can  be  gotten,  as  well  as  some  suggestion  of  pattern. 

It  is  important,  however,  that  the  beds  of  the  dry-laid  stones  shall  incline  slightly 
downward  from  the  face  of  the  wall  to  allow  of  the  retention  of  such  moisture  as 
may  find  its  way  into  the  intervals  of  soil.  It  is  possible  to  apply  the  above  to  a 
brick  wall  by  the  omission  of  bricks  at  intervals,  as  the  construction  may  allow. 

All  walls  should  be  surmounted  by  a stone  capping,  and  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses the  3-inch  slabs  of  North  River  stone  serve  well  for  both  stone  or  brick. 
1 his  capstone  should  project  slightly  beyond  the  line  of  the  wall  both  front  and 
back.  In  like  manner  the  wall  is  built  on  a stone  foundation,  after  the  usual 
manner  of  house  walls,  with  heavy  projecting  footing  stones.  This  should  be 
sunk  below  the  frost  level.  A brick  wall  16  inches  thick,  with  one  exposed  face  of 
water-struck  brick,  may  be  estimated  at  about  seventy-five  cents  per  square 
foot  of  exposed  surface. 

Garden  steps  should  be  easy;  that  is,  of  slight  rise  and  increased  tread.  A 
5-inch  rise  and  a 1 5-inch  (or  even  more)  tread  is  suggestive  of  ease.  For  the  ex- 
tremely formal  garden  they  may  be  entirely  of  stone  or  brick,  or  with  stone 
nosing  and  brick  tread.  As  the  severity  of  style  relaxes,  they  may  even  be  made 
of  hard-packed  earth,  held  in  place  by  fairly  rough  stone  nosings  or  risers,  and  to 
insure  their  lasting  qualities  irregular  flat  stones  may  be  introduced  in  the  treads 
after  the  manner  of  the  Japanese  stepping  stones.  In  extreme  cases  the  irregular 
flat  stone  may  be  used  alone  with  excellent  results. 


Old  Prince  House  at  Flushing,  Long  Island,  showing  entrance  to  terrace  through  the 
arching  box  growth 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


The  suggestion  for  wall  planting  can  well  be  applied  to  the  steps,  but,  as 
in  the  former  case,  moderation  should  be  observed,  and  never  in  a way  to  detract 
from  their  usefulness.  Such  planting  is  more 
particularly  adapted  to  the  less  formal  types,  and 
yet  a limited  treatment  of  the  more  severe  examples 
will  tend  to  break  hard  architectural  lines,  tie  the 
motive  to  the  garden,  and  relieve  that  extreme 
effect  of  newness  or  lack  of  mellowness  which 
usually  pervades  the  outlay.  We  all  know  that 
the  hand  of  time  adds  interest  and  picturesqueness 
to  the  creations  of  man,  and  for  example  we  have 
but  to  turn  to  the  beautiful  Italian  gardens  to  see 

how  Nature  has  added  to  their  charms  in  the  re-  A rustic  summer  house 

claiming  of  her  own.  We  doubt  much  if  in  the 

extreme  freshness  of  their  youth  they  were  half  as  interesting  or  impressive.  It  is 
that  little  touch  of  Nature,  be  it  ever  so  slight,  that  puts  the  final  brush  mark  upon 
the  works  of  man,  and  the  designer  who  invites,  aids  or  considers  this  shows 
himself  a master,  by  the  acknowledgment  of  a higher  power  than  his  own. 

Seats  were  intended  to  sit  upon,  strange  as  it  may  seem.  In  our  Northern 
climate,  however,  stone  is  but  a chilly  friend  for  the  wearer  of  ordinary  clothing. 
The  stone  bench  of  Classic  origin  is  all  right  for  climates  like  that  of  its  native  soil, 
in  fact  it  is  apt  to  get  extremely  hot,  but  as  we  get  further  from  the  equator  the  in- 
troduction of  a wooden  cushion  between  one’s  anatomy  and  this  unsympathetic 
detail  of  Classic  design  holds  more  common  sense  than  poetry.  This  will  probably 
shock  the  purist,  and  his  ire  will  be  increased  when  it  is  suggested  that  the  stone 
slab  be  replaced  by  wood  (which  is  in  violation  of  good  usage,  inasmuch  as  one 
material  is'made  to 

However,  the  dam- 
age to  our  feelings 
is  apt  to  be  less  in 
this  last  instance 
than  the  chilly  per- 
sonal contact  al- 
ready suggested. 

Stretching  the 
point  still  further, 
the  less  important 
seat  may  be  made 
entirely  of  wood. 

A 2 or  3 inch  plank 
may  serve  as  the 
seat  proper  and  the 
end  supports  b e 

made  of  4 inch  garden  at  Mount  Vernon.  Beyond  the  beds  of  quaint  design  are  the  hedge-enclosed 

Stock.  Modelled  garden  plots  where  old-fashioned  flowers  bloom 


286  The  Country  House 

after  simple  Classic  lines,  such  a seat  could  be  made  for  $12  or  so.  It  is  well, 
however,  that  it  have  a stone  base  and  be  fully  protected  with  spar  varnish. 

Garden  seats  may  be  in  a variety  of  forms,  as  suggested  by  conditions.  They 
may  be  simply  isolated  seats,  or  partially  enclosed  and  covered  by  a semi-pergola 
motive.  They  may  be  built  about  a central  umbrella  motive  or  let  into  niches  in 
the  wall.  In  any  case  it  is  advisable  that  slab  seats  should  crown  or  pitch  to  shed 
the  water,  thus  accelerating  their  drying,  or  where  practical  the  seat  may  be  made 
of  closely  placed  wooden  slats  to  effect  the  same  end. 

If  there  be  a judgment  day,  we  pray  that  all  sculptors  who  have  perpetrated 
hideous  and  unhealthy  fountains  shall  receive  just  punishment.  It  is  not  a 
pleasant  sensation  to  look  for  a moment  upon  a person  writhing  in  the  agonies  of 
a violent  poison,  but  to  have  the  horror  perpetrated  in  marble  or  bronze  and 
erected  as  a detail  of  a fountain  is  unbearable.  To  emphasise  the  play  of  muscles, 
no  doubt,  the  anatomy  is  contorted  with  lifelike  realism  and,  to  crown  all,  the 
nightmare  is  actually  ejecting  the  cause  of  his  troubles — pure  water.  This  phase 
of  sculpture  may  be  strenuous  and  good  art,  but  of  the  two  evils  we  much  prefer 
the  type  of  chaste  maiden  who  reverses  her  funeral  urn  to  drain  the  stagnant  water 
therein  collected. 

Sculpture  is  allowed  a certain  decorative  license  as  regards  grotesque  and 
allegorical  interpretations,  and  these  things  are  well,  provided  they  be  not  carried 
to  the  point  of  being  repulsive.  The  sculptured  goose,  swan  or  fish  may  serve  to 
throw  a limited  jet  of  water  to  a limited  distance,  while  the  human  and  animal 

masks  may  be  used 
in  like  manner,  but 
each  should  look 
capable  of  the  task 
imposed  upon  it.  As 
an  example  of  the 
unnatural  delivery 
of  water,  take  the 
two  flanking  figures 
in  an  Italian  garden 
— one  of  the  foun- 
tains of  the  royal 
palace,  Caserta.  In 
this  an  urn,  inclined 
slightly  upward, 
delivers  a small  and 
powerful  stream 
which  carries  well 
over  the  cascades 
and  into  the  basin. 
This  is  not  the  nat- 
ural delivery  of  an 

urn,  and  is  consequently  false  and  ludicrous.  It  is  far  better  that  a simple  orna- 
mental water  head  be  used  than  that  such  startling  illusions  as  this  be  tolerated. 


The  Italian  well  curb,  or  “ pozo,”  in  the  centre  of  the  court  of  Mrs.  Hearst’s  hacienda 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories  287 

For  the  uses  of  the  ordinary  American  garden  the  fountain  should  be  com- 
paratively simple,  and  a very  good  suggestion  has  been  offered — that  the  basin  be 
constructed  with  an  outward  flare  and  without  moulding  on  the  inside,  so  that 
lifting  ice  may  not  crack  it.  It  is  well,  too,  that  the  water  should  be  fairly  close 
to  the  rim,  and  that 
its  depth  be  not  over 
2 or  3 feet,  also  that 
stagnant  water  is 
not  desirable. 

The  shut-off 
should  be  located  in 
the  shrubbery  or 
some  other  con- 
venient place  where 
it  will  not  be  a notice- 
able feature.  The 
fountain  is  set  on  a 
solid,  sunken  base, 
under  the  finished 
basin.  The  basin 
itself  may  be  lined 
with  hydraulic 
cement,  laid  on  brick 
or  rough  stone.  It 

is  well  that  this  support  be  firm  and  solid,  otherwise  the  basin  may  crack  and  leak. 

The  sun-dial  is  an  old  garden  feature  which  can  well  be  used  in  any 
American  garden,  although  being  more  particularly  suited  to  the  English  and 
Colonial  types.  As  a small  bit  of  accessory  it  is  excellent,  and  often  in  a very 
small  garden  may  form  the  central  motive.  It  should,  however,  be  placed  in  such 
a position  that  it  will  serve  the  purpose  intended  of  it,  and  to  this  end  it  should  be 
carefully  and  properly  set. 

In  setting  the  dial  it  is  necessary  that  the  base  be  absolutely  level;  the  placing 
of  it  in  position  at  exactly  noon,  at  the  proper  angle  to  the  sun,  is  an  easy  matter. 
A reproduction  of  the  old  brass  dial  may  be  procured  for  $10. 

The  use  of  statuary  should  be  limited,  and  its  selection  most  carefully  made. 
The  reasons  that  make  it  advisable  to  eliminate  the  hideous  from  the  fountain 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  and  a severe  line  be  drawn  at  “death  agonies”  and 
the  like.  The  most  natural  representations  are  those  of  the  faun,  nymph  and 
satyr.  Mythology  suggests  much  that  is  good  for  the  garden,  particularly  those 
already  mentioned.  There  are  of  course  other  forms  more  or  less  fitted  for  the 
purpose,  but  the  owner  should  use  his  best  judgment  as  to  their  fitness. 

Garden  pots  are  used  as  a receptacle  for  shrubs  or  small  decorative  trees, 
and  the  combined  motive  is  exceedingly  valuable  in  marking  emphatic  angles  of 
the  design,  in  which  case  they  are  usually  placed  directly  on  the  ground  or  a 
flat  base  provided  for  them.  They  are  also  used  on  the  top  of  walls  or  fences, 
in  which  case  they  should  be  over  a post  or  pilaster.  Several  of  the  old  Roman 


288 


The  Country  House 


pots  have  been  reproduced  in  this  country,  and  are  in  every  way  as  desirable  as 
those  made  on  the  other  side.  A most  excellent  design,  of  large  size,  having  the 
four  masks  and  connecting  festoons  around  it  in  high  relief,  can  be  bought  for  $50; 

smaller  and  simpler  patterns  for  corre- 
spondingly less. 

The  urn  is  usually  more  elaborate 
than  the  pot,  and  as  such  requires  less 
growth  to  make  it  interesting.  Some- 
times, in  fact,  it  may  be  advisable  to 
omit  the  growth  entirely.  The  proper 
place  for  the  urn  is  that  of  slight  or  fair 
elevation,  usually  on  top  of  a wall  or 
fence  post,  at  least  not  on  the  ground. 
1 he  old  Italian  oil  jar  has  been  used  to 
considerable  advantage,  and  its  plain, 
simple  lines  are  excellent. 

The  use  of  the  free  column  has 
been  much  abused  in  this  country.  The 
American  garden  is  not  the  place  to 
reproduce  ruins  or  partially  restored 
Pompeian  effects.  The  architectural 
column  should  have  something  to  sup- 
port, even  if  it  be  nothing  more  than  a 
sphere  or  decorative  eagle,  and  even  then 
it  often  has  no  excuse  for  its  existence. 
A column  of  fair  size  may  be  used,  often- 
times, as  a support  for  the  wistaria  or 

Sun-dial  in  cedar  garden  of  R.  L.  Stevens.  Esq.,  at  Bernards  trumpet  CECCper,  especially  when  It  IS 

viiie,  n.  j.  Daniel  Langton,  landscape  architect  advisable  to  carry  a mass  of  colour  above 

the  ordinary  height.  Being  thus  used  it 
should  be  simple,  and  may  be  surmounted  by  an  armillary  sphere,  or  skeleton  globe, 
which  would  insure  the  massing  of  foliage  and  flowers  at  the  top. 

I he  free  column  may  be  a made-up  affair  in  wood,  supported  by  a post  set 
in  the  ground.  I he  globe  at  the  top  may  be  made  of  three  good  barrel  hoops 
placed  after  the  manner  of  the  meridians,  and  having  a fourth  hoop  round  about 
them  after  the  manner  of  the  equator.  As  this  skeleton  is  supposed  to  be  filled 
and  intertwined  with  some  climbing  vine,  the  hoops  answer  the  purpose  very  well. 
A made-up  column  15  feet  high  and  15  inches  across  at  the  base,  with  simply 
moulded  cap  and  base,  can  be  bought  for  $25. 

1 he  old  Classic  device  representing  the  head  of  Hermes  on  a tapering  shaft 
about  the  height  of  a man  is  frequently  used  in  pairs  to  mark  the  beginning  of  a 
walk.  He  is  often  represented  with  double  heads,  back  to  back,  and  in  this  form 
it  is  not  advisable  to  turn  one  or  the  other  of  his  faces  to  the  wall. 

The  garden  lantern  may  be  said  to  be  distinctly  a feature  of  the  Japanese 
garden,  but  it  can  be  used  elsewhere  if  desired.  The  garden  may  be  made  ex- 
tremely interesting  at  night  by  the  use  of  lanterns  placed  on  the  side  or  top  of  the 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


289 

wall.  In  fact,  the  chances  for  emphatic  effect  through  the  agency  of  artificial 
lights  are  most  numerous  and  varied,  and  offer  an  enticing  study  for  the  designer. 

Old  Japanese  lanterns  cost  considerable;  a cheap  substitute  may  be  made  at 
little  cost  from  Portland  cement.  This  should 
be  constructed  so  that  the  lantern  part  can  be 
lifted  from  the  base,  allowing  a candle  to  be 
placed  in  position.  It  can  also  be  wired  for 
electric  light  or  piped  for  gas.  The  Japanese  use 
silk  or  paper  for  their  windows;  for  the  cement 
reproduction  American  stained  glass  is  as  effective, 
and  far  more  durable. 

There  are  frequently  conditions  which  nat- 
urally suggest  the  bridge.  It  may  be  only  a 
tiny  affair,  or  perchance  it  may  be  of  some  size 
and  pretension,  but  the  owner  should  at  once 
recognise  this  special  privilege  and  treat  it  with 
care  and  discretion.  Although  the  rustic  bridge 
is  often  effective  as  a bit  of  design,  it  requires 
constant  care  and  frequent  repair;  rough  stone 
should  be  used  in  preference.  More  regular 
stonework  and  brickwork  may  be  used  in  cases 
of  formal  treatment,  and  of  these  the  stone  is 
to  be  preferred.  Frequently  the  bridge  may  be 
partially  covered  by  growth,  much  to  its  advantage. 

One  must  not  underestimate  the  importance  of  the  garden  gate  in  he 
general  scheme  of  design.  It  is  the  connecting  link  between  inner  and  outer  con- 
ditions, and  as  such  bears  upon  its  shoulders  much  responsibility.  Through 
it  is  seen  the  garden  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  outer  and  commonly  more 
naturalistic  conditions  on  the  other.  That  it  should  harmonise  thoroughly 
with  both  goes  without  saying,  and  that  on  this  account  its  mission  is  often 
difficult  is  also  clear.  It  may  take  the  form  of  a mere  opening  in  a solid  wall, 
or  become  a more  studied  detail  in  connection  with  the  screening  fence. 

A simple  and  neat  wooden  Colonial  gateway  may  be  constructed  for  $25  and 
upward;  any  amount  can  be  spent,  if  one  wishes,  without  complaint  from  the  car- 
penter. 1 his  is  one  of  the  few  cases  where 
this  gentleman  is  dumb;  his  is  simply  to  “say 
nothing  and  saw  wood.” 

That  the  reader  may  form  some  idea  of  the 
most  common  models  upon  which  the  American 
garden  may  be  based,  a brief  description  of  their 
several  characteristics  will  serve  to  show  their 
distinctive  differences  in  scheme  of  design. 

Renaissance  architecture  being  a revival  on 
Classic  lines,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  garden 
with  which  it  was  allied  should  also  be  drawn 
from  the  same  source.  Consequently  such  ancient 


a m r 1 

1 


A vista  in  the  Stevens  garden 


Seat  in  the  Stevens  garden 


290  The  Country  House 

Roman  ruins  as  then  existed,  borne  out  by  descriptions  of  them  by  Cicero  and 
Pliny,  formed  the  basis  of  design  for  the  Italian  garden.  The  main  fact  which  at 
once  strikes  the  beholder  is  that  it  is  an  architectural  effort  in  which  even  Nature 
herself  has  been  conventionalised,  to  the  end  that  both  garden  and  villa  should  be 
one  complete  and  harmonious  architectural  composition.  In  this  scheme  it  was 
only  natural  that  the  trees  should  be  trimmed  and  clipped  into  forms  more  or 
less  antagonistic  to  their  natural  growth.  Of  course  Nature  has  in  a measure 
reclaimed  her  own,  and  it  is  now  difficult  to  determine  conclusively  just  to  what 
extent  this  conventionalising  extended.  It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that,  in  our 
eyes  at  least,  the  existing  suggestions  are  preferable  to  the  original  lines. 

As  to  the  architectural  embellishment  of  the  garden,  it  is  natural  that  the 
antique  sculpture  of  the  Roman  garden  should  find  its  way  into  it,  but  the 
Italian,  being  a collector,  often  overcrowded  his  garden  with  much  that  really  had 
no  place  there,  thereby  making  of  it  a veritable  museum.  Such  antiques,  being  in 
reality  a part  of  the  history  of  the  country  itself,  had  a more  or  less  natural  refuge 
in  the  villa  garden,  while  the  appropriateness  of  such  plunder  is  often  questionable 
in  the  American  garden. 

Properly  speaking,  flowers  are  not  a feature  of  the  Italian  garden.  The  old 
monastic  examples  grew  only  such  as  could  be  used  for  practical  purposes.  In 
them  flourished  such  flowers  and  herbs  as  had  medicinal  properties,  and  some 

specimens  of  the  former  that  could  be  used  in  the 
festivals  of  the  Church.  On  such  lines  as  these 
vegetables  were  naturally  cultivated. 

The  main  features  of  the  Italian  garden  are 
its  sloping  site,  in  which  three,  rather  than  two 
or  four,  terraces  are  used,  the  architectural 
treatment  of  the  emphatic  points  of  the  design, 
the  use  of  running  water  both  in  cascades  and 
fountains  upon  each  distinct  level  of  the  motive, 
and  the  formal  treatment  of  such  flower  beds, 
hedges  and  avenues  as  are  deemed  necessary  to 
the  proper  setting  of  architectural  motives.  Each 
terrace  is  faced  by  a stone  retaining  wall,  capped 
by  a balustrade  and  connected  by  broad  stair- 
ways. The  garden  is  enclosed,  and  is  usually  of 
about  io  acres,  in  which  its  length  is  two  or 
three  times  its  breadth.  The  long  axis  follows 
the  slope  of  the  hill  on  which  it  is  situated. 
The  entrance  is  through  the  wall  at  the  lower 
level,  in  which  is  the  flower  garden.  On  the 
middle  level  is  the  most  important  and  central 
feature  of  the  garden  design — the  house,  or  casino 
with  its  architectural  accessories.  Above  this, 
the  third  level,  is  the  more  naturalistic  treatment  of  trees,  which  serves  as  a back- 
ground for  the  central  architectural  feature  as  seen  from  below. 

This  briefly  is  the  typical  Italian  garden,  architectural  in  its  treatment  and 


A rough-stone  bridge  supporting  a drive 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories  29 1 


festal  in  its  character.  It  is  a beautiful  and  expensive  toy,  rather  more  perhaps 
than  the  average  rich  American  would  care  to  carry,  and  yet  suggestive  of  much 
that  can  be  adapted 
to  smaller  and  less 
pretentious  p r o b - 
lems.  The  Amer- 
ican, being  a man 
of  business,  has  little  . 
time  to  enjoy  such 
an  extensive  outlay 
and  i s contented, 
perhaps  wisely,  with 
the  smaller  luxury. 

I n comparing 
the  English  garden 
with  that  of  Italy, 
one  is  struck  by  the 
domestic  qualities  of 
the  former.  The 
conscious  effort  for 
effect  so  noticeable 
in  Italian  and 
French  gardens  is 
lacking,  and,  al- 
though these  two  are 
superior  to  the  Eng- 
lish garden  as  ex- 
amples of  the  higher 
art  of  scientific  gar- 
dening, they  never- 
theless suggest  too 
much  of  the  festive 
and  public  function 
to  be  in  accord  with 

the  domestic  tem- 
perament of  the  Stone  steps  in  a formal  garden.  Flowers  soften  the  lines  of  architecture 

Anglo-Saxon.  The 

earlier  work  was  influenced  by  that  of  Italy,  and  from  this  we  have  the  formal 
terrace,  walled  garden,  bowling  green,  clipped  hedge  and  the  architectural 
accessory.  Naturally,  from  the  character  of  the  country,  the  terrace  was  perhaps 
more  flat,  and  this  general  flatness  extended  to  the  whole  outlay.  The  details  of 
accessory  were  simple,  and  such  accessory  less  numerous  than  in  the  Italian  type. 

Although  the  English  gardener  has  frequently  gone  to  extremes  in  the 
matter  of  clipping,  and  evolved  from  perfectly  harmless  and  innocent  trees  most 
hideous  and  awe-inspiring  effects,  yet  the  better  and  simpler  forms  are  rather 
pleasing  than  otherwise.  He  has  respected  in  a great  measure  the  right  of  trees 


Garden  of  Mrs.  Larz  Anderson,  at  Brookline,  Mass  , showing  treatment  of  end  toward  the  house.  Charles  A.  Platt,  architect 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


293 


to  their  own  form  of  growth,  and  it  is  only  with  the  smaller  variety  that  he  has 
taken  liberties.  He  has,  with  the  aid  of  certain  informal  details,  arrived  at  a 
formal  result,  and  the  whole  has  been  effectively  tied  and  blended  by  the  extreme 
formality  of  small  details.  What  he  lacks  in  the  way  of  the  sculptured  accessory 
of  the  Italian  he  has  made  good  in  his  love  of  flowers,  and  in  this  comes  that 
human  note  so  harmonious  with  domesticity. 

The  English  garden  is  planned  with  the  idea  of  utility  first  and  beauty 
afterward,  not  that  the  one  is  sacrificed  to  the  other,  but  that  the  latter  consideration 
is  used  to  clothe  the  framework  of  the  former.  A requisite  of  the  English  home  life 
requires  approaches  and  courts  to  gain  access  to  the  house.  There  is  the  main 
approach  and  that  to  the  kitchen  and  servants’  quarters,  neither  of  which  are 
considered  desirable  as  outlooks.  The  chief  living  rooms,  then,  are  naturally 
opposite  these  and  overlook  the  most  favourable  aspect.  The  privacy  of  the 
separate  approaches  and  the  garden  proper  is  obtained  through  the  medium  of 
walls  and  high  hedges.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  house  is  naturally  in  the 
interval  between  the  entrance  and  service  court  on  the  street  side  and  the  garden  or 
“forecourt”  in  the  rear,  and  on  which  the  living  rooms  of  the  house  face.  As  has 
been  stated  by  one  writer:  “The  place  is  considered  as  an  outdoor  house.  The 

grounds  are  divided  up  according  to  their  use,  and  each  portion  has  a well- 
established  boundary.”  Thus  the  entrance  courts,  kitchen  garden,  stable  and 
yards,  lawns  and  pleasure  grounds  are  laid  out  as  best  serves  their  several  pur- 
poses. Although  this  subdivision  is  very  apt  to  be  on  the  lines  of  an  unbalanced 
plan,  yet  the  details  of  the  decorative  outlay  are  formal.  This  may  be  a rather 
meagre  description  of  the  typical  English  garden,  but  it  should  serve  to  show  the 
chief  considerations 
in  its  planning. 

As  old  Colonial 
architecture  was  but 
the  English  revival 
of  the  Classic  and 
Renaissance,  usually 
called  “Georgian,” 
it  was  but  natural 
that  the  Colonial 
garden  follow  after 
the  English  models. 

But  the  former  type 
usually  differs,  in  a 
measure,  from  the 
marked  extremes  of 
the  parent  style,  as 
it  was  natural  that 
a plantation  should 

differ  from  an  English  estate.  The  plot  is  usually  level  and  the  general  plan 
extremely  simple,  and,  as  far  as  the  old  examples  of  the  James  River  suggest,  the 
terrace  did  not  exist.  In  some  old  New  England  examples,  the  garden  was  on 


Plan  of  the  Anderson  garden  and  its  approaches.  Notice  its  square  outline,  the  pergola 
at  the  eastern  entrance,  the  central  strip  of  lawn,  and  the  three  levels  which  supply  the 
changing  viewpoint.  Also  how  the  grove  hides  the  garden.  Length  of  garden,  including 
pergola,  206  feet;  width,  196  feet 


294 


The  Country  House 


a lower  level  than  the  house,  but  in  itself  it  was  of  flat  contour.  The  enclosing 
wall  was  replaced  by  the  hedge,  and  it  is  evident  that  clipping,  except  in  the  case 
of  box  hedges,  was  not  carried  to  excess  as  in  England.  The  “box”  hedge  formed 

an  important  feature  as  an 
enclosing  border  for  the 
various  plots  and  as  out- 
lines to  the  often  intricate 
patterns  of  the  flower  gar- 
den. In  fact  the  Colonial 
garden  was  a flower  garden, 
and  in  this  lies  its  greatest 
charm.  The  whole  scale 
was  one  that  seemed  to  fit 
the  individual  and  give  it 
the  feeling  of  home.  Its 
broadest  paths  were  never 
wide,  and  its  narrow  ones 
allowed  only  width  enough 
for  one  person.  Ordinarily 
the  paths  were  flanked  with 
box  or  flower  beds,  or  both. 

The  garden  accessories  were  few  and  simple,  consisting  of  gates,  arbours, 
summer  houses,  tool  houses,  sun  dials  and  frequent  trellises.  Although  formal  in 
character  it  was  not  necessarily  regular,  yet  regularity  was  the  rule  rather  than 
the  exception,  and  the  balance  in  the  question  of  detailed  motives  was  generally 
preserved. 

It  is  perhaps  the  Colonial  garden  that  appeals  more  strongly  to  the  average 
American  than  any  of  the  more  elaborate  foreign  examples,  and  as  a formal 
garden  it  is  evidently  nearer  within  the  reach  of  the  purse  of  the  average  garden 
lover.  Owing  to  its  small  scale  it  can  be  reduced  to  a small  size  with  considerable 
effect,  but  it  should  never  be  used  with  any  but  a Colonial  house,  and  the  archi- 
tects tell  us  that  the  Colonial  architecture  is  out  of  style  again.  We  do  not  believe 
that  is  entirely  true,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  wholesale  reproduction  of  this  type 
has  fallen  off  within  a few  years,  to  the  preference  of  English  designs.  There 
is  too  much  that  is  distinctly  American  in  the  Colonial,  both  in  the  comfort  of 
its  plan  and  its  wholesome  appearance,  for  it  to  become  extinct.  If  ever  we 
evolve  a distinctly  American  style,  it  will  be  found  to  contain  more  of  the 
Colonial  blood  than  any  other. 

As  the  Spanish  garden  is  well  adapted  to  our  Southern  climate,  anc.  more 
particularly  to  the  old  Southwest  territory  once  owned  by  Spain,  it  is  important 
that  it  should  receive  some  consideration.  In  this  it  is  perhaps  well  to  consider  it 
from  the  standpoint  of  what  has  been  done  by  the  Spaniards  themselves  in  southern 
California. 

The  best  and  only  example  in  any  sort  of  state  of  preservation  is  the 
famous  Mission  of  Santa  Barbara.  This  interesting  old  structure  was  begun  in 
1786  and  completed  as  it  now  stands  in  1822.  Like  many  of  the  similar  Spanish 


A bit  of  the  rock  garden  at  " Yaddo,”  Saratoga,  N.  Y.  This  shows  an  interesting  handling  of  simple  material.  The  use  of  poplars  is  an  impoitam  featuie 


296 


The  Country  House 


A modest  gate  glorified  by  an  arbour  of  wistaria 


monastic  structures,  this  edifice  was  in  plan  a hollow  square  enclosed  by  the 
church  on  one  side  and  flanked  by  two  wings.  The  side  opposite  the  church  was 
evidently  bounded,  or  so  intended  to  be,  by  a wall  which,  with  the  buildings,  en- 
closed the  garden.  Along  the  three  sides  of  the  court  adjacent  to  the  buildings 
extended  a cloister.  The  Spanish  house  is  similar  in  its  arrangement.  The 
central  motive  of  the  garden  is  a very  simple  fountain  with  a raised  curbing, 
characteristic  of  most  of  the  Spanish  examples,  and  paths  radiating  from  this 
on  the  diameters  and  diagonals  of  the  quadrangle.  The  planting,  while  some- 
what irregular  in  its  present  state,  is  nevertheless  interesting,  and  the  whole  thing 
suggests  the  privacy  that  is  intended.  This  plan  is  similar  to  most  of  the  Spanish- 
American  work  and,  as  already  stated,  follows  the  lines  of  the  parent  country. 
1 he  scheme  is  evidently  borrowed  from  the  Pompeian,  and  is  in  harmony  with 
their  ways  of  living. 

In  the  average  Spanish  garden  the  central  motive  is  either  a well,  basin  or 
fountain,  and  in  each  case  the  curbing  is  raised.  Some  examples  show  the  use 
of  small  clipped  hedges  and  walks  on  lines  which  suggest  the  Colonial,  but  the 
illusion  is  only  momentary,  owing  to  the  presence  of  tropical  foliage.  Through 


Gardens  and  Their  Accessories 


297 


Moorish  influence  the  Spanish  garden  often  contains  a long,  narrow  pool  running 
from  side  to  side,  and  flanked  at  frequent  intervals  by  nearly  upright  single  jets 
of  water  playing  into  it.  1 he  effect  of  this  is  very  interesting. 

The  Japanese  garden  is  more  or  less  naturalistic,  and,  as  it  is  modelled  on 
the  Japanese  landscape,  it  is  of  course  irregular.  It  is  in  every  sense  ideal,  each 
detail  of  embellishment  being  drawn  from  the  best  examples  of  its  kind.  Not 
being  a flower  garden,  it  seldom  contains  a flower  bed.  Some  gardens  have 
scarcely  a suggestion  of  the  green  sprig,  and  at  rare  intervals  consist  of  nothing 
but  rocks,  pebbles  and  sand. 

It  is  their  mission  to  suggest  certain  phases  of  natural  conditions,  such  as 
wildness,  peacefulness  and  the  like,  and  to  this  end  is  their  character  restricted. 
If  we  compare  Japanese  landscape  art  with  the  original,  we  will  readily  see 
through  what  eyes  the  Japanese  gardener  sees  his  work.  He  is  limited  by  certain 
religious  conventionalities  and  recognised  ideals  in  pine  tree,  mountain,  lake, 
stone  and  other  shapes.  Some  tree  and  stone  combinations  are  considered  as 
fortunate,  and  are  naturally  striven  for,  while  the  unfortunate  form  is  as  naturally 
avoided.  Everything  in  a Japanese  garden  means  something  to  its  designer 
and  the  native.  It  is  an  art  of  symbols  and  religious  suggestions,  from  its 
lanterns,  bridges,  hills,  streams,  lakes,  trees  and  stones  to  the  specified  relation  they 
all  bear  to  one  another. 

The  size  of  the  Japanese  garden  is  one  of  wide  range;  it  may  be  of  considerable 
acreage  or  very  small  in  size.  In  the  latter  case  the  scale  of  its  details  is  reduced 
according  to  its  diminutiveness.  There  are  sev- 
eral styles  of  this  branch  of  art,  a description  of 
which  is  rather  too  lengthy  to  be  considered  here. 

From  the  foregoing  brief  descriptions  it  is 
readily  seen  that  in  all  cases  of  foreign  gardens, 
with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  English  type, 

they  are  of  little  value  if  taken  literally.  We 

have  in  the  first  place  to  consider  our  modes 

of  living  in  various  parts  of  the  country  and 

contrast  them  with  foreign  conditions.  We  must 
also  remember  that  every  garden,  be  it  ever  so 
formal,  is  more  or  less  an  index  of  the  character 
of  the  local  landscape,  and  that  to  attempt  an 
Italian  garden  in  Maine  would  be  exceedingly 
risky.  The  Italian  garden  requires  the  cypress, 
the  English  garden  the  elm,  the  Spanish  garden 
tropical  suggestions  of  foliage,  and  the  Japanese 
garden  the  pine.  In  the  Italian  type  our  cedar 
may  well  replace  the  cypress,  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  it  is  not  only  necessary  that 
these  botanical  characteristics  should  be  embodied  in  the  garden  itself  but  that 
they  should  be  characteristic  of  the  local  landscape  as  well.  Few  of  the  American 
gardens  have  observed  this  fact;  they  are  usually  in  direct  antagonism  to  natural 
conditions,  and  suffer  accordingly. 


Bit  of  garden  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  showing 
Japanese  influence 


298 


The  Country  House 


With  the  extent  of  latitude  and  longitude  which  this  country  embraces,  it  is 
not  likely  that  the  American  garden  is  destined  to  become  as  distinct  a type  as 
those  of  other  countries.  Its  varying  conditions  are  such  as  make  the  adoption  of 
certain  cut-and-dried  principles  impossible.  It  has  demonstrated  one  thing,  how- 
ever— that,  whatever  else  may  vary,  the  American  garden  is  distinctly  a flower 
garden.  This  is  well,  as  it  gives  us  the  variety  attending  various  schemes  of 
planting  without  great  expense;  thus  one  season  is  not  necessarily  the  duplicate 
of  its  predecessor. 

It  is  well  that  we  consider  the  foreign  garden  and  its  conditions,  but  let  this 
consideration  be  thorough,  extending  even  to  the  reason  of  things.  When  we  have 
done  this  we  may  draw  upon  our  knowledge  and  produce  for  ourselves  something 
that  may  suggest,  but  shall  be  for  the  time  nameless;  a creation  of  simple  beauty 
unfettered  by  excessive  plunder  of  the  Continent;  a creation  that  will  be  the 
natural  outgrowth  of  existing  conditions  and  will  harmonise  not  only  with  the 
architectural  structure  but  the  life  and  temperament  of  its  owner. 


Rock  garden,  “Yaddo.”  The  brook,  bordered  by  Japanese  iris,  connects  two  fountains 


An  interesting  and  wholesome  rendering  of  the  Colonial.  Joy  Wheeler  Dow,  architect 


CHAPTER  XVI 
Contract  and  Specifications 

N THE  preparation  of  the  contract  and  specifications  one  must 
observe  two  things:  First,  that  all  points  be  fully  covered; 

second,  that  they  be  simple  and  have  no  double  meaning. 
Thus  polite  language  and  figures  of  speech  are  not  for  these. 
One  should  decide  on  what  one  wishes  and  put  it  so  there  may 
be  no  mistake  as  to  its  true  meaning  and  intent.  As  these  doc- 
uments may  be  called  upon  to  stand  in  court  it  is  doubly  ad- 
visable that  this  be  so.  The  contract  in  particular  is  a legal  document,  from  the 
performance  of  which  there  should  be  no  escape  for  the  contractor  who  is  dis- 
posed to  take  advantage  in  any  way.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be  fair  to  all 
parties  concerned. 

In  letting  the  contract  it  is  not  always  advantageous  that  it  be  to  the  lowest 
bidder;  more  often  quite  the  contrary.  The  cheap  contractor  will  bid  low  with 
the  idea  of  making  up  for  it  later;  therefore  his  reputation  should  be  looked  into 
before  he  be  allowed  the  contract.  The  trouble  and  worry  with  this  sort  of 
swindler  is  more  costly  than  is  the  awarding  of  the  job  to  a decent  man  at  a fair 
price  in  the  first  place.  As  is  usually  the  case  in  calling  for  estimates,  “the 
owner  reserves  the  right  to  reject  any  and  all  bids.”  1 his  allows  him  a chance 
to  escape  from  a lot  of  building  sharks  and  call  for  new  bids. 

The  form  of  contract  here  appended  is  substantially  that  drawn  up  for,  and 
used  by,  the  State  of  Massachusetts  in  the  construction  of  the  Woman’s  Prison 
at  Sherborn,  in  1875.  This  contract  was  approved  by  Attorney  General  Train  and 

299 


300 


The  Country  House 

has  been  used  with  success  on  this  and  other  occasions,  in  one  of  which  the 
contractor  tried  to  break  it  and  could  not.  In  its  original  form  it  was  so  strong 
that  the  parties  who  signed  it  were  practically  at  the  mercy  of  the  State,  but  as 
the  Commonwealth  was  disposed  to  act  fairly  no  objections  were  raised.  The  con- 
ditions governing  the  contract  for  private  work  make  it  imperative  that  its  form 
should  be  slightly  modified,  that  it  may  be  fairer  to  the  contractor.  With  this  in 
view,  it  has  been  slightly  changed  and  brought  up  to  date,  although  its  original 
intentions  are  retained. 


FORM  OF  CONTRACT 

These  Articles  of  Agreement,  made  and  entered  into  at  New  York  City,  State  of  New  York, 
on  the  thirteenth  day  of  June  in  the  year  nineteen  hundred  and  five,  by  and  between  Henry 
Hanghammer,  Esq.,  of  Hilltown,  New  York,  party  of  the  first  part  (also  termed  the  Owner), 
and  Edward  T.  Burdenton,  of  New  York  City,  New  York,  party  of  the  second  part  (also  termed 
the  Contractor),  Witness  that  the  said  parties  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  each  other  as 
follows,  namely: 

First.  The  Contractor  hereby  covenants  and  agrees  with  the  said  Owner  that  he  will  furnish 
and  provide  all  materials  of  every  sort,  and  do  and  perform  all  work  and  labour  of  every  kind, 
required  in  the  erection  and  completion  of  a dwelling  house  to  be  located  on  land  of  the  Owner  on 
the  northwest  corner  of  Pine  and  High  Streets  at  Hilltown,  New  York,  with  all  the  works  and 
appurtenances  thereto  belonging  and  therewith  connected,  as  described,  specified,  and  illustrated 
by  the  general  plans,  detailed  drawings,  and  specifications  prepared  and  furnished  by  J.  C.  Buster, 
Architect,  of  New  York  City;  which  said  plans  and  drawings,  together  with  said  specifications, 
being  identified  by  the  signatures  of  the  two  parties  herein  mentioned,  are  hereby  made  a part  of 
this  contract. 

Second.  The  Contractor  further  agrees  with  the  said  Owner,  that  he  will  forthwith  com- 
mence the  erection  of  said  building,  and  prosecute  the  same  without  unreasonable  delay  or  inter- 
mission, and  fully  complete  and  finish  the  same  according  to  this  contract,  and  deliver  up  the  same 
completed,  finished  and  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  rubbish,  with  the  keys  thereof  to  the  Owner,  or 
other  due  authorised  agents,  heirs  or  executors  of  the  Owner,  on  or  before  the  fifteenth  day  of 
February  in  the  year  nineteen  hundred  and  six. 

Third.  The  said  Owner  covenants  and  agrees,  that  if  the  Contractor  shall  well  and  faith- 
fully perform  and  fulfil  this  contract,  and  keep  every  covenant  on  his  part  herein  contained,  the 
said  Owner  will  pay  to  the  said  Contractor  the  sum  of  seventeen  thousand  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars  therefor,  in  instalments  as  the  work  progresses,  as  follows:  Monthly  payments  shall  be 

made  of  sums  to  equal  eightv-five  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  all  material  applied  to  and  fixed  in 
the  construction  of  the  building  and  works,  the  said  value  to  be  estimated  and  determined  by  the 
Architect,  and  paid  only  upon  his  certificate,  in  writing,  to  the  Owner,  said  payments  to  be  due 
upon  the  issuing  of  said  certificates.  Provided  that  the  last  payment  shall  not  be  made  until 
thirty  days  shall  have  elapsed  after  the  certificate  of  the  Architect  that  such  last  payment  is  due 
has  been  rendered  to  the  Owner;  and  it  is  further  provided  that  the  said  residue  reserved  for 
the  final  payment  shall  not  be  paid  unless  the  Architect  shall  certify  that  this  contract  has  been 
fully  performed,  and  that  all  the  damages  or  allowances,  if  any  there  should  be,  have  been  ad- 
justed and  deducted  from  said  residue,  nor  unless  the  Contractor  shall  accept  the  same  in  full 
satisfaction  and  discharge  all  his  claims  and  demands  whatsoever,  under  or  in  connection  with  this 
contract. 

Fourth.  It  is  mutually  covenanted  and  agreed,  that  in  case  the  Owner  shall  at  any  time, 
during  the  progress  of  the  said  work,  request  any  alterations,  deviations,  additions,  or  omissions, 
in,  to,  or  upon  the  said  work,  or  any  detail  thereof,  as  shown  in  and  required  by  the  said  drawings 
and  specifications,  the  Contractor  will  make  each  and  every  alteration,  deviation,  addition,  or 
omission  so  requested,  and  the  same  shall  not  in  any  way  avoid  or  impair  this  contract,  but  the 
cost  or  expense  thereof  at  a fair  and  reasonable  valuation,  to  be  immediately  agreed  upon  by  the 
Architect,  the  Owner  and  the  Contractor,  and  certified  at  the  same  time  in  writing  by  the  said 


30i 


Contract  and  Specifications 

Architect,  shall  be  as  may  be  just  and  proper  added  to  or  deducted  from  the  payments  to  be  made 
to  the  Contractor  under  this  contract,  and  shall  be  accounted  for  and  settled  by  and  between  the 
respective  Owner  and  Contractor;  the  making  of  any  such  alteration,  deviation,  addition,  or 
omission  shall  not  vary  the  time  above  limited  to  the  performance  of  this  contract,  unless  the 
number  of  days  to  be  added  to  or  deducted  therefrom  by  reason  thereof  shall  be  determined  and 
certified  to  in  writing  at  the  time  by  the  Architect. 

Fifth.  It  is  agreed  by  the  parties  hereto,  that  in  case  the  Contractor  shall  at  any  time  refuse 
or  neglect  to  supply  a sufficiency  of  skilled  workmen  and  materials  of  the  proper  quality,  or  shall 
fail  in  any  respect  to  prosecute  the  work  required  by  this  contract  with  promptness  and  diligence, 
or  shall  omit  to  fulfil  any  provision  therein  contained,  such  refusal  or  neglect  being  certified  to  by 
the  Architect  in  writing,  the  Owner  may,  after  three  days’  written  notice  to  the  Contractor,  provide 
such  requisite  labour  or  materials,  necessary  to  the  proper  performance  of  the  work  under  this 
contract,  and  may  deduct  the  cost  thereof  from  such  payments  as  are  due  or  may  thereafter  become 
due  to  the  Contractor  under  this  contract;  and  if  the  Contractor  shall  be  adjudged  to  be  bank- 
rupt or  if  the  Architect  shall  certify  that  such  aforesaid  refusal  or  neglect  be  sufficient  grounds  for 
such  actions,  the  Owner  shall  have  the  right  and  power  to  enter  upon  and  take  charge  of  the  said 
work,  and  expel  the  Contractor  and  his  servants  and  agents  therefrom  and  to  procure  and  employ 
other  persons  to  perform  and  furnish  the  work  and  materials  required  by  this  contract,  so  as  to 
fully  execute  the  same  in  every  respect;  and  the  Contractor  shall  be  liable  to  pay  the  said  Owner 
all  damages  which  he  may  sustain  by  reason  of  the  failure  of  the  Contractor  to  fulfil  his  part  of 
the  contract,  and  shall  have  no  claim  or  demand  to  any  unpaid  balance  unless  such  balance 
exceeds  the  amount  of  damages  due  the  Owner  as  above  stated.  It  is  further  agreed  that  such 
unpaid  balance  due  the  Contractor  under  the  above  conditions  of  refusal  or  neglect  shall  be 
withheld  until  the  said  work  shall  be  wholly  completed  according  to  this  contract,  and  if  the 
amount  of  damages  due  the  Owner  exceed  the  amount  of  unpaid  balance  due  the  Contractor,  the 
said  Contractor  shall  be  liable  for  the  difference  and  shall  pay  the  same  to  the  Owner.  The 
expense  incurred  by  the  Owner  from  such  above  refusal  or  neglect,  either  in  the  furnishing  of  the 
proper  labour  and  material,  or  any  damage  sustained  through  the  above  default,  shall  be  audited 
and  certified  to  by  the  Architect,  and  the  text  of  such  certificate  shall  be  binding  upon  the 
parties  herein  mentioned. 

Sixth.  It  is  mutually  agreed  by  the  parties  herein  mentioned,  that  should  the  Contractor 
be  hindered  or  delayed  in  the  prosecution  or  final  completion  of  the  said  work  herein  mentioned, 
by  the  fault  or  neglect  of  the  Owner,  of  the  Architect,  or  any  other  Contractor  employed  by 
the  Owner  upon  said  work,  or  by  any  delay  due  to  any  damage  caused  by  fire  or  by  any  other 
casualty  for  which  the  Contractor  is  in  no  way  responsible,  or  by  strikes,  general  or  local,  or  by 
lockouts  caused  by  acts  of  the  employees  of  the  said  Contractor,  then  the  time  limit  herein  fixed 
for  the  completion  of  said  work  shall  be  extended  for  a period  equal  to  the  time  lost  through  reason 
of  any  or  all  of  the  causes  aforesaid,  such  period  of  extension  to  be  determined  and  fixed  by  the 
Architect;  it  is  understood,  however,  that  such  allowance  shall  not  be  made  unless  claim  therefor, 
in  writing,  be  presented  within  a period  of  forty-eight  hours  of  the  occurrence  of  said  delay.  It  is 
further  agreed  that  the  Contractor  is  to  give  the  Owner  two  weeks’  notice  prior  to  the  time  when 
it  is  necessary  that  such  material  as  the  Owner  is  to  furnish  at  his  own  expense,  or  the  material 
and  labour  under  any  separate  contract,  should  be  on  the  ground  for  the  full  and  complete  pros- 
ecution of  the  work  without  delay  to  the  Contractor;  and  in  the  event  of  failure  on  the  part  of 
the  owner  to  produce  such  material  or  labour  and  material  under  any  separate  contract,  the  Owner 
will  reimburse  the  Contractor  for  such  loss  of  time  and  expense  therein  occasioned  by  said  failure. 
Provided,  however,  that  such  failure  on  the  part  of  the  Owner  be  not  by  reason  of  strikes, 
shortage  of  market,  or  from  such  other  causes  as  shall  be  adjudged  sufficient  by  an  arbitrative 
board.  Should  the  Owner  and  Contractor  fail  to  agree  as  to  the  fair  valuation  for  loss  or  damage 
occasioned  by  either,  one  to  the  other,  or  of  any  alteration,  deviation,  addition,  or  omission,  from  the 
work  as  shown  by  the  original  drawings  and  specifications  hereto  appended,  and  said  valuation 
shall  be  determined  by  an  arbitrative  board  composed  of  one  person  selected  by  the  Owner,  and  one 
person  selected  by  the  Contractor,  and  a third  to  be  selected  by  the  two  members  already  chosen. 
The  decision  of  the  majority  of  this  board  shall  be  deemed  final  and  binding  on  both  parties 
hereto,  and  the  expense  of  such  proceeding  shall  be  borne  by  both  parties,  in  equal  part. 


302 


The  Country  House 

Seventh.  The  Contractor  shall  provide  safe  and  proper  facilities  at  all  times  for  the  in- 
spection of  the  work  by  the  Architect,  the  Owner,  or  their  authorised  agents;  and  it  is  also  agreed 
that  the  Architect  may  condemn  and  reject  any  of  the  work  performed  or  materials  furnished 
under  this  contract,  and  the  Contractor  shall  within  twenty-four  hours  from  the  receipt  of  a 
written  order  from  the  Architect  to  such  effect  take  down  and  remove  from  the  premises  at  his 
own  expense  such  objectionable  work  and  materials  as  may  be  deemed  by  the  Architect  to  be  a 
violation  of,  or  in  any  way  below  the  standard  required  by,  this  contract  and  the  appended 
drawings  and  specifications;  and  should  the  Contractor  fail  to  cause  the  removal  and  proper 
substitution  of  work  and  material  as  above  stated,  the  Architect  may  cause  the  same  to  be 
done  at  the  expense  of  the  Contractor.  It  is  further  provided  that  all  damage  done  to  other 
labour  and  materials  caused  by  the  removal  of  said  objectionable  labour  and  materials  shall  be 
made  good  by  the  Contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

Eighth.  It  is  understood  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  herein  mentioned  that  all  of 
the  work  herein  included  in  this  contract  is  to  be  done  under  the  personal  supervision  and  direction 
of  the  Architect  or  his  authorised  agents,  or  by  such  person  or  persons  as  the  Owner,  in  the  event  of 
the  retirement  of  the  Architect  or  his  agents,  may  appoint  for  the  purpose.  It  is  also  understood 
that  the  decision  rendered  by  the  Architect,  his  authorised  agents  or  such  person  or  persons  herein 
appointed  as  substitutes,  as  to  the  true  construction  and  meaning  of  the  drawings  and  specifica- 
tions, is  to  be  considered  final  and  binding  upon  the  parties  hereto.  It  is  further  agreed  that  the 
drawings  furnished  by  the  Architect  for  the  construction  and  completion  of  the  work  under  this 
contract  shall  be  full  and  complete  to  the  proper  illustration  of  the  work  to  be  done,  and  that 
the  same  drawings  and  specifications  are  to  remain  the  property  of  the  said  Architect  and  are  to 
be  returned  to  him  at  the  completion  of  said  work,  both  of  which  said  drawings  and  specifications 
herein  mentioned,  together  with  the  Architect’s  services  as  supervisor,  are  to  be  paid  for  by  the 
Owner.  The  Architect  is  to  furnish  one  set  of  scale  drawings  and  specifications,  to  be  kept  con- 
tinually on  the  work  convenient  for  examination  by  the  Architect  and  Owner  or  their  authorised 
agents;  and  the  Contractor  shall  provide  a convenient  place  for  disposal  of  said  drawings  and 
specifications,  which  are  not  to  be  used  by  him  or  his  employees  in  any  other  way  than  for  handy 
reference,  nor  shall  they  be  removed  from  the  premises,  but  are  to  be  retained  for  the  purposes 
hereinabove  mentioned. 

Ninth.  Should  at  any  time  there  be  evidence  of  a lien  or  claim  upon  said  work,  for  which 
the  Owner  may,  if  such  lien  or  claim  be  established,  become  liable,  and  which  liability  is  charge- 
able to  the  Contractor,  the  Owner  shall  have  the  right  to  withhold  from  any  payment  then  due,  or 
any  payment  or  payments  hereafter  becoming  due,  a sufficient  amount  to  completely  cover  such 
lien  or  claim  and  should  any  such  claim  be  established  after  all  payments  are  made,  the  Con- 
tractor shall  refund  to  the  Owner  such  amount  as  the  latter  may  be  compelled  to  pay  in  discharg- 
ing such  lien  or  claim  as  is  by  the  default  of  the  Contractor  made  obligatory. 

Tenth.  The  Owner  shall  maintain  a proper  and  sufficient  insurance  upon  the  work  herein 
mentioned  as  it  progresses,  against  loss  or  damage  by  fire,  in  such  insurance  company  as  may 
be  approved  of  by  the  Contractor,  and  the  policies  made  payable  to  the  parties  hereto,  relatively 
as  their  interests  in  the  work;  the  said  policies  to  cover  at  all  times  such  work  as  may  be  in- 
corporated in  the  building,  and  all  materials  to  be  used  in  construction  of  the  same  in  or  about 
the  premises. 

Eleventh.  It  is  agreed  between  the  Owner  and  the  Contractor  that  the  latter  shall  not  assign 
or  transfer  his  interest  in  the  whole  or  part  of  this  contract,  or  any  right  he  may  have  under  the 
same,  unless  the  written  consent  thereto  of  the  Owner  is  first  procured. 

Twelfth.  It  is  further  agreed  that  no  certificate  given  or  payment  made  under  this 
contract  shall  operate  as,  or  be  held  to  be,  an  admission  on  the  part  of  the  Owner  that  this 
contract  or  any  part  thereof  has  been  complied  with,  or  that  any  detail  of  the  work  has  been 
properly  performed,  so  as  to  affect  any  claims  of  the  Owner  for  damages  should  the  work 
and  material  hereby  required  not  be  performed  and  furnished  in  every  particular  in  a sub- 
stantial and  workmanlike  manner,  and  of  good  and  proper  quality,  or  should  this  contract 
not  be  faithfully  executed  in  every  respect.  It  is  further  provided  that  no  occupation  of  the 
building  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed  shall  be  deemed  to  be  an  acceptance  under  the 
terms  of  this  contract. 


303 


Contract  and  Specifications 

In  witness  thereof , the  said  parties  of  their  own  free  will,  for  themselves,  their  heirs,  suc- 
cessors, executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  do  hereby,  with  the  full  understanding  of  all  and  every 
part  of  the  above  contract,  agree  to  the  full  and  complete  performance  of  the  covenants  contained 
herein,  and  hereunto  set  their  hands  and  seals,  on  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Henry  Hanghammer,  Owner. 

Attest:  Asa  V.  Davie.  Edward  T.  Burdenton,  Contractor. 


The  following  specifications  are  from  a practical  set  used  in  actual  con- 
struction. I hey  do  not  cover  all  possible  conditions,  which  would  be  impossible  in 
one  form,  but  they  give  a good  idea  of  the  spirit  of  the  thing,  and  as  it  has  been 
the  purpose  of  the  foregoing  chapters  to  give  some  practical  hints  and  suggestions, 
it  should  not  be  a very  difficult  task  to  embody  what  one  wishes  on  these  lines. 
The  principal  thing  is  to  state  that  So-and-So  shall  provide  certain  materials  of 
a certain  quality  and  shall  use  them  in  the  best  manner  to  construct  some  detail 
in  a certain  way  or  form.  If  there  are  several  contractors  working  under  separate 
contracts,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  cases  where  their  work  overlaps  should 
be  spoken  of  in  both  contracts.  For  instance:  The  carpenter  is  required  to 

furnish  and  set  the  wooden  supports  on  which  the  plumber  lays  his  water  pipes. 
Each  contractor  furnishes  his  own  staging  unless  it  be  otherwise  specified. 

The  heating  and  plumbing  specifications  would  probably  be  more  than  the 
average  amateur  would  care  to  tackle.  It  requires  a knowledge  outside  of  books  to 
do  this  understandingly,  and  for  the  average  man  it  would  be  hardly  worth  while. 
He  might  get  an  idea  of  what  is  right  from  the  book,  but  to  nail  it  down  so  that 
there  be  no  squirming  out  of  its  true  intention  is  the  work  of  the  expert.  Oftentimes 
the  heating  and  plumbing  are  given  to  reliable  parties  without  any  formal  contract; 
they  furnish  the  specifications,  which  are  readily  explained.  It  is  really  the  architect’s 
job  to  make  the  specifications  from  data  furnished  him  by  the  owner. 

We  have,  however,  included  the  plumbing  specifications,  as  they  are  of  such 
nature  that  they  can  be  figured  on  by  any  plumber.  With  the  heating  it  is  different. 
Each  firm  handles  its  own  exclusive  style  of  heater  and  other  details,  and  often  does 
the  job  in  a somewhat  different  way  than  does  its  competitor.  Each  is  supposed  to 
produce  the  same  results  on  similar  lines  in  its  own  way  from  its  own  specifications. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  DWELLING  HOUSE 
For  Henry  Hanghammer,  Esq.,  of  Hilltown,  N.  Y. 


J.  C.  Buster,  Architect,  N.  Y. 


Specification  of  the  Labour  and  Materials  to  be  furnished  in  the  erection  of  a frame  dwelling 
house  for  Henry  Hanghammer,  Esq.,  of  Hilltown,  N.  Y.,  in  accordance  with  the  accompanving 
drawings  and  their  specifications,  prepared  by  J.  C.  Buster,  Architect,  New  York,  also  under  his 
supervision. 


304 


The  Country  House 

General  Conditions.  The  Contractor  shall  furnish  all  materials,  labour,  transportation, 
scaffolding,  utensils,  etc.,  of  every  description,  required  for  the  full  performance  of  the  work  herein 
specified,  except  as  otherwise  particularly  mentioned.  He  shall  lay  out  his  work  and  be  respon- 
sible for  its  correctness,  shall  keep  a competent  foreman  on  the  premises,  shall  not  sublet  any  part 
of  his  work  without  the  written  consent  of  the  Owner,  shall  obtain  all  necessary  permits  to  properly 
carry  out  his  work,  paying  the  lawful  fees  therefor;  shall  give  to  the  proper  authorities  all  requisite 
notices  relating  to  the  work  in  his  charge,  shall  afford  the  Architect  or  his  agent  every  facility  for 
inspection,  shall  be  responsible  for  all  violations  of  law  or  damage  to  property  caused  by  him  or 
his  employees,  and  shall  properly  protect  his  work  during  progress. 

All  the  materials  are  to  be  the  best  of  their  several  kinds,  unless  otherwise  particularly 
specified;  all  labour  to  be  performed  in  the  best  manner  by  skilled  workmen,  and  both  to  be 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Architect. 

All  work  and  material  must  conform  to  the  laws,  rules  and  regulations  in  force  in  the  locality 
in  which  the  building  is  to  stand,  anything  herein  specified  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  The 
drawings  referred  to  in  this  specification  will  be  supplemented  by  detailed  drawings  to  be  fur- 
nished as  the  work  progresses.  All  these  drawings  are  intended  to  co-operate  with  and  form  a 
part  of  the  specifications  and  the  accompanying  contract.  Where  figures  are  given  they  are  to  be 
followed  in  preference  to  measurement  by  scale. 

Anything  which  is  not  shown  on  the  drawings,  but  which  is  mentioned  in  the  specifications,  or 
vice  versa,  or  anything  not  expressly  set  forth  in  either,  but  which  is  reasonably  implied,  shall  be  fur- 
nished and  performed  the  same  as  though  specially  shown  and  mentioned  in  both. 

Should  anything  be  omitted  from  the  drawings  or  specifications, which  is  necessary  to  a clear 
understanding  of  the  work,  or  should  any  error  appear  either  in  the  various  instruments  furnished 
or  in  the  work  done  by  other  contractors  affecting  the  work  included  in  this  specification,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  Contractor  to  notify  the  Architect.  In  the  event  of  the  Contractor  failing  to  give 
such  notice,  he  shall  make  good  any  damage  to  or  defect  in  his  work  caused  thereby. 

The  drawings  and  specifications  furnished  for  this  work  are  to  be  considered  instruments  of 
service,  are  to  be  used  for  this  building  only,  are  the  property  of  the  Architect,  and  must  be  re- 
turned to  him  immediately  on  completion  of  the  work  set  forth  therein. 

At  any  time  directed  by  the  Architect,  the  Contractor  shall  clear  out  any  of  his  rubbish  and 
surplus  material  which  may  constitute  an  obstruction  to  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  at  comple- 
tion shall  clear  out  all  rubbish  and  surplus  material  left  by  him,  shall  repair  any  damage  to  his 
work,  no  matter  by  whom  caused  (loss  or  damage  by  fire  excepted),  and  leave  the  premises  broom 
clean  and  in  perfect  repair  and  order  so  far  as  his  work  is  concerned. 

The  Owner  reserves  the  right  to  accept  any  or  reject  all  proposals  presented. 

The  Contractor  is  to  have  full  charge  of  the  building  until  completion,  and  will  be  held 
responsible  for  all  property  that  may  be  injured  or  stolen  while  the  building  is  in  his  care.  The 
Contractor  shall  provide  all  necessary  guards,  rails  and  night  lights. 

The  Owner  is  to  furnish  fuel  and  the  Contractor  stoves  to  heat  the  building  when  necessary 
during  progress.  Should  the  Owner  allow  the  heating  apparatus  to  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
the  Contractor  shall  furnish  proper  attendance  for  and  be  responsible  for  any  damage  to  the  same. 

The  Owner  shall  insure  the  building  and  the  material  on  the  premises,  covering  his  own 
and  the  Contractor’s  interests  therein  against  loss  or  damage  by  fire,  such  policies  being  made 
payable  to  the  Owner  and  Contractor  as  their  interests  may  appear. 

The  Contractor  shall  lay  out  the  building  from  the  drawings  and  under  the  direction  of 
the  Architect  and  furnish  and  put  in  stakes  and  batter  boards  as  may  be  necessary. 

Contractor  shall  make  application  and  pay  charges  for  the  introduction  and  use  of  water 
to  carry  out  the  work. 


MASONRY 

Excavation.  On  the  site  of  building  and  for  8'  additional  all  around  remove  the  sod  and 
top  soil  and  stack  where  directed. 

Excavate  for  the  cellar,  footings,  drains,  etc.,  of  the  dimensions  and  to  the  depth  as  shown 
on  the  drawings  and  required  by  the  grade. 


305 


Contract  and  Specifications 

The  excavation  to  be  12"  larger  all  round  than  is  shown  on  the  cellar  plan. 

All  earth  taken  from  the  excavation  and  not  needed  for  filling  in  and  grading  is  to  be 
removed  from  the  premises  by  the  Contractor. 

Do  all  blasting  required  in  a proper  manner.  After  blasting,  all  beds  must  be  chiselled 
off  level. 

Grading.  Fill  in  around  the  cellar  walls  after  the  cement  is  dry,  and  fill  in  all  drains  herein 
specified. 

All  fillings  to  be  well  rammed  or  puddled.  Grade  neatly  away  from  the  building. 

Lime,  Cement  and  Sand.  All  lime  for  the  various  works  herein  mentioned  to  be  ‘'Extra”  No.  1 
Rockland,  freshly  burned  and  thoroughly  slacked. 

Rosendale  cement  to  be  Brooklyn  Bridge  brand  Rosendale  Hydraulic  cement. 

Portland  cement  to  be  fresh  Atlas  Portland  cement. 

Sand  to  be  clean,  sharp,  free  from  loam  and  salt,  properly  screened. 

Mortar.  All  mortar  for  the  various  works  herein  specified,  except  for  plastering,  to  be  as 
follows : 

Lime  Mortar:  One  part  of  lime  to  three  of  sand. 

Lime-Rosendale  Cement  Mortar:  One  part  Rosendale  cement,  one  part  lime,  five  parts  sand. 

Lime-Portland  Cement  Mortar:  One  part  Portland  Cement,  two  parts  lime,  four  parts  sand. 

Rosendale  Cement  Mortar:  One  part  Rosendale  cement  to  two  of  sand. 

Portland  Cement  Mortar:  One  part  Portland  cement  to  three  of  sand. 

Foundations.  Build  the  foundation  walls  to  the  height  and  thickness  shown  on  plan,  of 
best-quality  local  ledge  stone.  To  be  selected,  large-sized  stone,  laid  to  the  lines  on  inside,  well 
fitted  together,  and  all  voids  filled  solid  with  spalls  and  mortar.  Each  stone  firmly  bedded  and 
Cushioned  in  place,  and  all  joints  filled  with  mortar. 

All  stonework  of  foundations  below  grade  to  be  laid  in  Lime-Portland  cement  mortar. 

The  walls  from  the  grade  level  to  the  wooden  sill  are  to  be  in  thickness  as  shown,  with  local 
seam-face  ledge  stone  laid  up  in  Lime-Portland  cement  mortar. 

The  outside  joints  are  to  be  raked  out  and  pointed  with  Portland  cement  mortar  coloured 
as  directed. 

Drains.  Lay  a 5"  vitrified  tile  drain  from  a point  io'  outside  of  the  building  to  the  sewer 
on  Main  Street. 

All  earthenware  pipes  to  be  smooth,  salt  glazed  and  cylindrical,  free  from  defects,  each  length 
perfectly  straight.  The  ends  of  the  pipes  to  be  wet  before  applying  the  cement,  and  the  space 
between  each  hub  and  the  small  end  of  the  next  section  to  be  completely  filled  with  Portland  cement 
with  joints  clean  inside.  Lay  with  uniform  fall  and  use  Y branches  for  all  connections. 

Lay  a 4"  vitrified  tile  drain  from  each  leader  io'  out  from  the  building,  and  run  into  loose 
stone  drains  or  pits,  3'  in  diameter,  3'  deep,  with  top  4'  below  surface  of  ground. 

Concreting.  Level  off  the  cellar  bottom,  settle  thoroughly  and  put  down  a concrete  bottom 
2"  dee])  of  one  part  Rosendale  cement,  two  parts  sand  and  three  parts  clean,  coarse,  sharp  gravel, 
well  tamped;  cover  this  with  a coat  of  one  part  Portland  cement  to  two  of  sand,  thick;  all  flushed 
up  smooth  with  a true  and  even  surface. 

Brickwork.  Build  the  chimney  as  shown  on  drawings,  with  flues  8"x  12",  of  brick  laid 
in  lime  mortar  to  under  side  of  roof  boardings;  above  roof  to  be  laid  in  mortar  made  of  clear 
cement  and  sand,  coloured  as  directed  and  all  joints  neatly  struck. 

All  flues  to  be  carried  up  separately  to  the  top.  Plaster  every  chimney  on  the  outside  to 
under  side  of  roof  boarding.  Build  in  lead  flashings  to  be  provided  by  the  carpenter.  Provide 
and  set  iron  thimbles  in  laundry,  each  attic  room,  kitchen  and  furnace  flues,  also  8"  x 8"  iron 
clean-out  door  and  frame  in  all  flues  close  to  basement  floor  and  12"  x 12"  iron  clean-out  door 
and  frame  in  ash  pits. 

All  chimneys,  etc.,  where  brickwork  is  shown  on  drawings,  to  be  laid  up  in  dimensions  as 
chown,  with  sound,  hard-burned,  well-shaped,  merchantable  common  brick.  The  outside 
surfaces  to  be  laid  up  with  selected  water-struck  brick,  all  laid  up  in  mortar,  as  above 
specified. 

On  completion,  the  Contractor  is  to  thoroughly  clean  the  outside  brickwork,  using  diluted 
muriatic  acid  and  water,  applied  with  a scrubbing  brush. 


3°6 


The  Country  House 

Build  the  fireplaces  of  rough  brick,  making  the  openings  3'  high  above  the  floor,  with  2"  x 
wrought-iron  lintel  to  each  opening. 

Turn  4"  trimmer  arches  on  centres  to  all  fireplaces. 

Build  finished  fireplaces  according  to  detail  drawings,  faced  with  4"  glazed  American  tiles, 
two  rows  wide,  to  be  secured  by  polished  brass  angle  bars.  Make  all  hearths  of  American  unglazed 
red  tiles  without  border  and  laid  in  Portland  cement,  same  to  be  of  dimensions  shown  on  detail 
drawings.  Fireplaces  to  be  lined  with  best  Philadelphia  glazed  brick,  as  shown.  These  and  all 
tiles  to  be  selected  by  the  Owner.  Provide  and  set  ash  grates  to  all  first-story  fireplaces. 

Terra  Cotta.  All  flues  lined  with  terra-cotta  flue  lining. 

Steel  and  Iron.  Furnish  and  set  “Lally”  columns  4"  in  diameter  with  caps  and  bases, 
where  shown  on  basement  plan. 

Lathing  and  Plastering.  The  side  walls  of  the  cellar  are  not  to  be  lathed  and  plastered.  All 
other  walls,  ceilings,  including  cellar  ceiling,  partitions  and  work  that  is  furred  off  throughout  the 
building,  are  to  be  lathed  with  sound  and  dry  spruce  laths  put  on  f"  apart,  with  four  nailings  tc 
each  lath,  and  joints  broken  every  third  course  on  ceilings  and  every  sixth  course  on  walls;  no 
lath  to  be  put  on  vertically  nor  to  run  from  one  room  to  another. 

Plaster  all  work  which  is  lathed  with  a first  coat  of  mortar  composed  of  one  barrel  of  pure 
lime,  thoroughly  slacked  and  strained,  to  three  barrels  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  free  from  loam  and 
salt,  adding  one  and  one-half  bushels  of  goat  hair,  well  beaten,  soaked  and  thoroughly  mixed  in. 
Stack  the  mortar  outside  of  house  five  clays  before  using.  This  coat  is  to  be  thoroughly  dry 
before  the  finishing  coat  is  applied.  All  ceilings  are  to  be  made  perfectly  level,  all  walls  true, 
straight  and  plumb,  and  all  angles  sharp  and  true.  The  brown  coat  to  be  carried  back  of  all 
trim,  base,  wainscoting,  etc.,  to  floor.  Finish  with  a coat  of  sand  finish  composed  of  one  part 
white-lime  putty  to  three  parts  of  white  sand  well  floated.  Cellar  ceiling  to  have  but  one  coat. 

Do  all  patching  of  plaster  work  required  after  other  mechanics  have  finished,  repairing  all 
cracks  and  broken  places,  and  leave  the  plastering  in  a first-class  condition. 

Wainscot  the  two  bathrooms  and  toilet  room  on  second  floor  4'  high  with  moulded  cap  and 
base  of  Keen’s  Cement  as  follows: 

First  coat:  Gauge  one  bag  cement  to  two  pails  lime  putty,  ten  pails  sand.  Use  plenty  of 

hair.  Thoroughly  scratch  and  let  dry  before  applying  next  coat. 

Second  coat:  Gauge  one  bag  cement  to  two  pails  putty  and  fifteen  pails  sand. 

Finish  coat:  Gauge  one  bag  cement  and  one  pail  lime  putty. 

First  run  base  and  cap  mouldings;  then  finish  space  between  same  as  ordinary  plastering, 
using  proportions  as  above. 

W hitewa siting.  Whitewash  all  stonework  visible  in  the  cellar  with  two  good  coats,  using 
Rockland  lime  and  plaster  of  Paris. 


CARPENTRY 

Timber.  All  timber,  except  where  otherwise  particularly  shown  or  specified,  to  be  of  spruce. 
All  to  be  sound,  well  seasoned,  and  free  from  imperfections  impairing  its  durability  or  strength, 
and  is  to  be  set  with  the  crowning  edge  up.  All  timber  to  be  of  the  sizes  shown  on  the  framing 
plans. 

Framing.  The  building  is  to  be  framed,  braced  and  pinned  in  the  best  and  strongest 
manner,  perfectly  true  and  plumb,  and  in  accordance  with  the  framing  drawings.  All  framing 
must  be  kept  2"  from  the  outside  of  the  chimneys,  and  in  no  case  will  the  timbers  be  allowed  to 
rest  on  the  chimneys.  The  sills  are'to  be  halved  and  pinned  with  hardwood  pins.  The  girts  are 
to  be  mortised  and  tenoned  into  the  posts  and  pinned  with  hardwood  pins.  Window  and  door 
studs  to  be  mortised  to  sills  and  girts.  Common  studs  to  be  spiked.  First-floor  beams  to  be  notched 
and  mortised  to  sills.  Second  and  third  floor  beams  to  be  sized  and  nailed  to  girts  and  partition 
caps,  spiking  the  beams  strongly  together  wherever  possible  to  form  a tie  across  the  building. 

Bridge  all  floor  beams  with  one  row  1"  x 3"  cross-bridging  as  shown,  properly  cut  in  and 
nailed  at  each  end  with  two  8d.  nails. 

Set  the  partitions  as  shown  on  the  plans  with  2"  x 4"  spruce  studs,  set  16"  on  centres, 
straight  and  plumb.  Partitions  directly  over  walls,  girders  or  partition  plates  below  are  to  be  run 


307 


Contract  and  Specifications 

down  to  them  and  are  not  to  rest  on  the  floors.  All  others  are  to  have  soles,  and  all  partitions  are 
to  have  heads  3"  x 4",  unless  otherwise  shown.  Truss  over  all  openings  exceeding  3'  in  span. 
Form  all  corners  and  angles  solid  by  spiking  two  studs  together. 

Line  the  sliding-door  pockets  with  §"  x 4 tongued  and  grooved  boards. 

Bridge  all  partitions  once  in  their  height  with  2"  x 4"  pieces  cut  horizontally  and  nailed  at 
each  end  with  two  iod.  nails. 

Boarding.  Cover  all  outside  walls  with  air-dried  matched  spruce  boards  thick,  free  from 
holes  and  large  knots,  surfaced  one  side  to  an  even  thickness  and  nailed  to  every  bearing  with  twro 
8d.  nails. 

Cover  the  entire  roof  with  square-edge  spruce  boarding  planed  to  an  even  thickness  of 
and  nailed  to  every  bearing  with  two  8d.  nails. 

Roofing.  Cover  all  roofs  with  air-dried  spruce  boards  thick,  free  from  holes  and  large 
knots,  surfaced  one  side,  and  well  nailed.  Cover  with  two-ply  “Neponset”  black  paper. 

The  roofs  of  front  and  rear  piazza,  bay  windows  and  bulkhead  are  to  be  tinned,  and  are 
hereinafter  specified  under  the  title  of  “Metal  Work.” 

Shingle  all  other  roofs  with  first-quality  16"  sawed  Washington  red  cedar  shingles,  laid  4J" 
to  the  weather  and  nailed  with  two  nails  to  each  shingle  when  under  6"  wide,  and  three  nails 
when  over  6"  wide.  Shingles  over  8"  wide  to  be  split  and  no  width  laid  to  exceed  8".  Shingles  in 
wide  14  oz.  copper  flashings,  in  valleys.  The  top  portions  of  roofs  which  are  one-third  pitch  to 
have  “Neponset”  paper  12"  wide  shingled  in  with  each  course. 

Form  the  main  gutters  of  cypress  5"  x 7"  with  2J  lb.  lead  goosenecks. 

Porch  and  piazza  gutter  3"  x 5",  of  cypress,  with  i\"  lead  goosenecks. 

Walls.  Cover  the  walls  with  two  thicknesses  best-quality  two-ply  “Neponset”  black 
sheathing  paper,  with  joints  well  broken,  run  under  all  casings  and  corner  boards.  Run  heavy 
tarred  paper  under  all  casings  of  doors,  windows,  etc. 

Cover  the  walls  throughout  with  best-quality  spruce  clapboards  6"  wide,  laid  with  a i\" 
lap  and  well  nailed  to  every  bearing  with  6d.  nails  set  in  for  puttying. 

Outside  Finish.  Form  cornice,  base,  casings,  corner-boards,  water  table,  etc.,  as  shown 
on  drawings  and  details,  of  best  seasoned  white  pine,  free  from  sap,  shakes  and  knots. 

The  carpenter  must  call  upon  the  painter  to  prime  all  exterior  finish  before  putting  up 
or  immediately  after. 

Piazza  and  Porch.  Form  porch  and  piazza  columns  of  cypress,  solid,  with  2"  bore  in  centre. 
Form  rails,  posts  and  balusters  of  cypress.  All  to  be  as  per  detail  drawings.  Ceil  the  underside 
of  roof  with  North  Carolina  pine  sheathing,  matched  and  beaded,  not  over  3"  wide. 

Floors  to  be  x 2^"  rift  longleaf  Georgia  pine,  laid  with  tongued  and  grooved  joints,  and 
outer  edges  rounded.  Cover  floor  joists,  sills  and  girders  with  one  priming  coat  of  paint. 

Fill  in  with  square  lattice  work  between  the  piers  under  piazza  and  porch.  The  strips  to  be 
x ij"  in  size,  with  x\"  openings.  The  frame  to  be  thick,  bottom  rail  7"  high,  and  stiles  and 
top  rail  4"  wide. 

Make  bulkhead  entrance  to  cellar,  as  shown,  with  2"  spruce  plank  steps  on  2"  x 12"  spruce 
plank  carriages,  14"  on  centres. 

Construct  the  outside  steps  with  i\"  treads  of  hard  pine  and  raisers  of  cypress.  The  edges 
of  the  treads  to  have  a nosing  and  cove. 

Window  and  Door  Frames.  All  outside-door  frames  are  to  be  blocked  solid  for  the  hinges 
and  locks.  All  frames  in  masonry  are  to  have  2"  jambs,  rabbeted,  with  provision  for  anchoring 
the  frame  to  the  walls.  All  outside-door  frames  to  be  of  best  white  pine.  Front-door  frame  to  be  as 
per  detail.  Bulkhead,  rear  and  side-door  frames  to  have  2"  jambs,  rabbeted. 

All  outside  doors  are  to  have  2"  bevelled  and  rabbeted  thresholds,  front  door  of  oak,  others 
Georgia  pine. 

All  casement  and  stationary  sash  frames  are  to  have  rabbeted  jambs  and  2"  sills  of 
white  pine. 

The  frames  in  the  basement  are  to  be  2"  x 8"  white  pine,  with  rabbeted  jambs,  with  sash 
hung  at  the  top  to  swing  in  with  two  iron  hooks  and  staples  and  two  iron  buttons  to  each  sash,  fur- 
nished by  the  Contractor. 

All  window  frames,  unless  otherwise  shown,  are  to  be  made  for  double  hanging  the  sash, 


308  The  Country  House 

using  best  bronze  chain  and  if"  steel  axle  pulleys  with  brass  faces.  Use  lead  weights  for  all 
plate-glass  sash  and  iron  weights  for  all  others.  All  jambs  and  heads  are  to  be  f"  thick,  and 
all  parting  strips  | x f".  Both  to  be  of  clear  Georgia  pine  primed  with  oil  before  being  brought  to 
the  building.  The  sills  to  be  2",  the  casings  £"  x 5"  with  2"  moulded  back  bands  and  §"  screen 
stop,  all  of  white  pine. 

Sash.  All  sash,  except  as  otherwise  specified,  are  to  be  made  of  strictly  clear,  well-seasoned 
white  pine,  with  acorn  mould  sash  bar  and  weather-lipped  meeting  rails.  All  sash  are  to  be 
rabbeted  for  the  glass,  and  divided  in  lights  as  shown. 

All  double-hung  sash  are  to  be  if"  thick  and  to  have  if"  meeting  rails. 

All  single  sash  to  be  1%"  thick. 

All  sash  are  to  be  primed  on  both  sides  by  the  Contractor  before  being  brought  to  the 
building.  Sash  for  rooms  which  are  to  have  a natural  finish  must  be  primed  inside  with  oil. 

The  sash  in  partition  between  vestibule  and  hall  to  be  of  quartered  oak. 

All  sash  in  the  living  room,  dining  room,  library,  reception  room,  chambers  over  these  rooms, 
in  bathroom  over  vestibule  and  front-stair  landing  are  to  be  glazed  in  the  lower  sash  with  best 
American  polished  plate  glass.  The  leaded  glass  of  side  lights  of  front  door  and  vestibule  door 
shall  be  furnished  by  the  Owner  and  set  in  place  by  the  Contractor. 

The  sash  in  side  entrance  to  be  glazed  with  silver  ripple  glass. 

All  other  sash  in  the  building  are  to  be  glazed  with  first-quality  double-thick  American  glass. 

Blinds.  Provide  and  hang  outside  blinds  for  all  windows,  except  in  cellar,  dormers,  stair- 
cases and  toilet  under  each  porch,  front  bathroom  and  other  narrow  windows  balancing  same, 
made  of  first-quality  white  pine,  if"  thick,  with  rolling  slats  in  lower  half,  and  cut  in  folds  as 
required.  All  are  to  be  marked  and  a corresponding  mark  is  to  be  put  on  the  frames. 

Furring,  Grounds  and  Beads.  Furr  all  chimney  breasts  with  2"  x 4"  spruce  studs  set  flat- 
wise 2"  clear  of  the  brickwork,  set  16"  on  centres. 

Furr  the  outside  walls  in  laundry  and  water  closet  with  2"  x 4"  spruce  studs  set  flatwise,  16" 
on  centres,  straight  and  plumb,  and  well  nailed  to  the  walls. 

Cross-furr  the  ceilings  throughout,  except  in  basement,  with  1"  x 2"  spruce  furring  strips, 
set  16"  on  centres,  and  nailed  to  the  underside  of  every  floor  beam.  Furr  the  outside  walls  back 
of  all  wainscoting  for  back  plastering  by  nailing  1"  x 2"  spruce  strips  on  the  sides  of  the  studs. 

Furr  off  for  arches,  cornices,  etc.,  as  shown  on  drawings  or  specified  elsewhere. 

Furr  all  chamber  closet  floors  to  make  top  of  floor  flush  with  top  of  threshold. 

Set  grounds  for  f"  plastering  for  all  windows  and  door  openings,  wainscoting,  bases,  etc., 
before  the  plastering  is  done,  all  grounds  to  be  set  straight  and  plumb. 

All  exposed  plaster  corners  to  be  protected  with  metal  angle  beads  approved  by  the  Architect. 

Under  Flooring.  Lay  an  under  floor  throughout,  except  in  basement  outside  of  laundry,  with 
spruce  boards,  surfaced  one  side  to  an  even  thickness,  laid  diagonally  on  the  beams  and  nailed 
through  the  top  to  every  bearing  with  two  8d.  nails. 

The  entire  rough  floor  to  be  swept  clean,  repaired,  levelled,  and  covered  with  one  thickness  of 
“ Beaver  ” brand  paper  before  the  finished  floor  is  laid. 

Cutting  and  Fitting.  The  Contractor  is  to  do  all  cutting  required  for  the  other  mechanics. 

Inside  Finish.  All  the  stock  for  interior  finish  of  every  kind  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  free 
from  knots  or  sap,  thoroughly  seasoned  and  kiln-dried,  and  of  selected  grain  where  finished 
natural. 

All  to  be  smoothed,  scraped  and  sandpapered  by  hand  before  putting  up. 

All  moulded  work  to  be  struck  in  accordance  with  detail  drawings. 

The  dining  room  to  be  finished  in  mahogany.  The  first-story  front  hall  and  staircase,  vesti- 
bule, toilet,  and  library  to  be  finished  in  clear,  kiln-dried  quartered  white  oak. 

The  kitchen,  porch,  pantry,  butler’s  pantry,  rear  hall,  the  entire  third  story  and  basement 
to  be  finished  in  clear  kiln-dried  North  Carolina  pine. 

All  other  finish  to  be  clear  kiln-dried  whitewood. 

Door  Frames.  All  inside  doors  to  have  if"  rabbeted  and  beaded  frames  to  match  finish 
of  rooms. 

Where  tly?  same  finish  is  used  on  both  sides,  they  are  to  be  solid,  except  where  oak  is  used 
on  both  sides,  where  they  are  to  be  veneered. 


Contract  and  Specifications  309 

All  inside  doors,  except  sliding  doors,  to  have  f"  thresholds  of  Georgia  pine,  except  in  rooms 
finished  in  oak,  where  they  are  to  be  quartered  oak. 

Doors.  All  doors  are  to  be  panelled  and  moulded  in  accordance  with  the  scale  and  detail 
drawings.  All  wood  to  be  kiln-dried. 

All  veneered  doors  are  to  be  on  staved-up  white-pine  centres,  with  solid  mouldings  and  f" 
veneering  of  kiln-dried  wood,  well  glued  on  both  sides. 

Doors  which  are  veneered  on  one  side  to  correspond  with  the  wood  in  the  room,  and  which 
open  into  such  rooms  from  closets  or  inferior  rooms,  must  be  veneered  both  sides  with  the  same 
kind  of  wood. 

The  sizes  of  all  doors  to  be  taken  from  the  plans. 

The  front  door  to  be  2 f"  thick,  veneered  both  sides  with  strictly  clear  quartered  oak,  panelled 
and  moulded,  with  raised  panels. 

The  rear  porch  door  to  be  2"  thick,  of  solid  clear  white  pine  panelled  and  moulded. 

The  side  door  to  be  2"  thick,  of  solid  clear  white  pine  with  glass  in  top,  as  shown. 

The  outside  cellar  door  to  be  if"  thick,  of  solid  white  pine,  panelled  and  moulded. 

The  vestibule  door  to  be  if"  thick,  veneered  on  both  sides  with  clear  quartered  oak, 
panelled  and  moulded,  with  large  panel  at  top  of  best  polished  American  glass. 

The  doors  between  vestibule  and  hall,  library  and  hall,  and  toilet  and  hall,  are  to  be  if" 
thick,  veneered  on  both  sides  with  clear  quartered  oak. 

The  doors  between  dining  room  and  hall  to  be  veneered  on  dining-room  side  with  mahog- 
any and  hall  side  with  quartered  oak. 

The  doors  between  living  room  and  hall,  reception  room  and  hall,  hall  and  rear  hall  are  to  be 
if"  thick,  veneered  on  hall  side  with  quartered  oak  and  whitewood  on  other,  except  butler’s 
pantry  and  rear  hall,  which  are  to  be  North  Carolina  pine  on  butler’s  pantry  and  rear-hall  sides 
and  mahogany  on  dining-room  side  and  oak  on  hall  side. 

The  doors  between  reception  room  and  living  room  to  be  if"  thick,  of  solid  whitewood.  All 
doors  on  second  story  to  be  if"  thick,  of  solid  whitewood. 

All  other  doors  to  be  if"  thick,  of  solid  clear  North  Carolina  pine. 

Sheathing.  Wainscot  the  kitchen,  pantry,  butler’s  pantry,  porch,  rear  hall  and  servants’ 
bathroom  feet  high,  and  billiard  room  4'  high  with  f"  matched  and  beaded  clear  kiln-dried 
sheathing  of  North  Carolina  pine,  with  moulded  cap  at  the  top  and  base  8"  high  with  if"  mould 
on  top. 

Sheathe  the  walls,  both  sides,  from  floor  to  ceiling,  of  laundry,  water  closet,  and  on  cellar 
side  of  cold  closet  in  basement  with  f"  matched  and  beaded  North  Carolina  pine. 

Wainscot  the  vestibule,  front  hall  and  up  staircase  to  chamber  door  and  dining  room,  4' 
high,  with  clear,  kiln-dried  quartered  white  oak,  with  moulded  raised  panels.  The  rails  and 
stiles  are  to  be  f"  thick,  with  cap  and  base.  All  are  to  be  as  per  detail  drawings. 

The  reception  room  to  have  wainscot  2'  6"  high,  of  whitewood,  with  moulded  raised  panels, 
with  cap  and  base,  all  as  per  details. 

Bases.  All  finished  rooms  to  have  bases  8"  high,  with  if"  mould  on  top. 

Door  and  Window  Trim.  All  windows  and  doors  throughout  are  to  be  provided  with  trim 
made  of  kiln-dried  wood  in  strict  accordance  with  the  detail  drawings.  All  wood  for  natural 
finish  is  to  be  strictly  clear.  No  door  or  window  trim  is  to  be  spliced.  All  interior  woodwork 
is  to  be  finished  up  perfectly  clean,  is  to  be  hand-smoothed,  scraped  and  sandpapered,  and  at 
completion  such  wrork  as  is  to  have  a natural  finish  to  be  properly  cleaned  and  have  all  stains 
and  finger  marks  removed. 

The  trim  in  vestibule,  hall,  library,  dining  room,  living  room,  reception  room  to  be  f " x 5", 
with  f"  x 2\"  back  band,  and  the  doors  of  said  rooms  to  have  moulded  caps  as  per  detail. 

All  other  trim  to  be  f"  x 5"  moulded  and  mitred. 

All  door  casings  to  have  if"  plinth  blocks. 

All  windows  to  have  f"  stops  and  f"  moulded  stool  and  apron. 

Door  Stops.  Provide  base  knobs  with  inserted  rubber  tips  behind  all  swing  doors  of  wood 
to  match  finish. 

Cornice,  Beams,  etc.  The  hall  to  have  wood  beams  and  a moulded  wood  cornice,  as  shown 
by  detail  drawings,  of  quartered  oak. 


3io 


The  Country  House 

Arches,  Seats,  etc.  Construct  in  hall  and  stairway,  and  properly  secure  in  position,  the 
seat,  arch  and  pilasters,  as  shown  on  scale  and  detail  drawings.  The  seats  are  to  be  hinged 
to  raise,  the  risers  and  back  are  to  be  panelled. 

Mantels,  etc.  The  Contractor  will  provide  and  set  all  mantels,  which  are  to  be  built  as  per 
details  furnished  and  of  the  wood  indicated  on  plans. 

Closets.  Fit  up  the  pantry  in  clear  North  Carolina  pine. 

Provide  a counter  shelf  2'  wide  and  2'  10"  from  the  floor.  Put  up  five  l"  shelves  above,  run 
on  the  sides  on  neat  cleats,  with  standards  where  necessary,  from  bottom  to  top,  neatly  let  in 
and  chamfered. 

Provide  case  of  three  drawers  and  closets  with  sheathed  doors  under  the  counter  shelf. 
Provide  and  set  in  place  marble  mixing  slab,  size  as  shown. 

Fit  up  laundry  closet  with  shelves  every  14"  to  height  of  door. 

Fit  up  butler’s  pantry  with  a counter  shelf  2'  o"  wide  and  2'  10"  high.  Fit  up  shelves 
above,  14"  wide. 

Enclose  the  shelves  with  l"  sash  doors  glazed  with  first-quality  double-thick  American  glass, 
divided  in  lights  as  shown  on  details,  arranged  to  swing.  Provide  below  the  counter  shelf  a case 
of  four  drawers,  one  cupboard  for  table  leaves  and  cupboards  elsewhere. 

All  to  be  of  North  Carolina  pine. 

All  bedroom  closets  are  to  have  one  shelf  put  up  on  neat  cleats,  and  strip  for  hooks  under. 
The  library  chamber  to  have  case  of  four  drawers. 

Fit  up  linen  and  blanket  closets  on  second  floor  with  shelves  every  12",  with  panelled  flap 
swinging  down  to  each  shelf. 

Fit  up  linen  closet  on  third  floor  with  shelves,  as  shown,  every  14"  in  height  to  ceiling. 

Fit  up  medicine  closet  in  bathroom  over  chute,  with  three  drawers  at  bottom  and  three 
shelves  above.  Enclose  with  panelled  door. 

Fit  up  medicine  closets  in  toilet  room  over  butler’s  pantry  and  bathroom  over  front 
vestibule,  each  2'  wide,  3'  high  and  6"  deep,  with  shelves  and  panelled  doors. 

One  of  the  bedrooms  on  third  floor  to  be  fitted  with  shelves  and  hooks. 

Chute.  Construct  a clothes  chute  to  run  from  bathroom  to  cellar,  as  shown  on  drawings. 
Ceil  up  vertically  with  l"  matched  North  Carolina  pine  sheathing.  Hang  proper  panelled 
doors  at  each  floor,  of  wood  to  correspond  with  the  wood  in  the  rooms. 

Case  in  all  plumbing  pipes  above  the  cellar  with  boards  of  same  material  as  wood  in  the 
rooms. 

Lay  the  floors  of  kitchen,  rear  hall,  porch,  pantry,  butler’s  pantry,  laundry,  water  closet,  and 
entire  third  story  with  x 2 ¥ rift  Georgia  pine  flooring,  matched  and  blind-nailed,  well  planed 
and  scraped. 

Where  the  lead  pipes  run  under  floors  they  are  to  run  on  suitable  tack  boards  put  up  and 
graded  by  the  Contractor.  The  Contractor  shall  also  provide  and  put  up  suitable  tack  boards 
on  the  walls  and  ceilings  on  which  to  run  all  exposed  pipes.  These  tack  boards  are  to  be  of  the 
same  kind  of  wood  as  the  wood  in  the  rooms,  and  are  to  have  chamfered  edges. 

Upper  Flooring.  Lay  the  floors  of  first -story  front  hall,  library,  dining  room,  vestibule, 
toilet  under  stairs,  two  bathrooms  and  toilet  in  second  floor  with  x 2V'  quartered  white-oak 
flooring,  laid  with  12"  border,  with  all  butt  ends  matched. 

All  this  flooring  is  to  be  strictly  clear,  thoroughly  seasoned  and  kiln-dried,  tongued  and 
grooved,  blind  nailed  to  every  bearing  with  8d.  nails,  and  is  to  be  planed  off,  scraped  and  sand- 
papered at  completion  and  left  in  a first-class  condition  for  finishing. 

All  hardwood  floors  to  be  laid  after  all  other  work  is  finished. 

Lay  all  other  floors  throughout  with  f"  spruce  flooring,  tongued  and  grooved,  and  blind- 
nailed  to  every  bearing  with  8d.  nails. 

Cut  borders  around  all  hearths  and  registers. 

Lay  one  thickness  of  “Beaver”  brand  paper  (two-ply)  between  the  upper  and  under 
flooring. 

Cellar  Work.  Construct  the  coal  bin  with  2"  x 4"  studs  set  outside.  Form  the  sides  with 
l"  tongued  and  grooved  surface  spruce,  extending  to  ceiling.  The  fronts  are  to  have  slides 
made  removable. 


Contract  and  Specifications  31 1 

Fit  up  in  cold  closet  two  shelves  where  shown,  supported  on  cleats  and  standards,  all  of 
good  quality  pine. 

Hardware.  The  Owner  will  furnish  all  exposed  hardware  for  front  outside  door  and  for 
living  room,  dining  room,  library,  reception  room,  front  hall  and  vestibule  and  the  chambers  above 
them,  and  all  sash  fasts  and  lifts  for  above  rooms.  The  Contractor  will  furnish  all  other  hard- 
ware, and  properly  put  in  place  both  this  and  that  furnished  by  the  Owner,  viz: 

All  sliding  doors  to  be  hung  with  Wilcox  hangers  and  tracks. 

Sash  weights  of  lead  and  iron,  metal  sash  chains,  bronze-finished  sash  fasts,  bronze-finished 
lifts,  4"  x 4"  loose-joint  japanned  butts,  R.  & E.  2j"  plain  bronze-finished  knobs,  R.  & E.  5" 
mortise  locks  with  bronzed  face  and  striking  piece,  front-door  lock,  R.  & E.  mortise  lever  lock 
with  brass  face  and  striking  piece,  and  night  latch. 

The  Owner  is  to  select  all  the  hardware  furnished  by  the  Contractor,  which  is  also  to  be  ap- 
proved by  the  Architect.  The  Contractor  is  to  allow  the  sum  of  $135  for  the  above  hardware. 

Stairs.  Construct  the  front  stairs  as  shown  on  the  scale  and  detail  drawings.  Support 
properly  and  secure  in  position.  All  risers  are  to  be  f"  and  treads  |",  tongued  and  grooved  to- 
gether, and  both  housed  into  the  wall  strings  with  wedges  glued  in.  The  threads  are  to  have 
nosing  on  the  edge,  with  a cove  under.  The  wall  strings  are  to  be  l"  thick,  moulded  on  top  edge 
to  correspond  with  the  adjoining  base.  The  front  strings  are  to  be  thick,  with  a moulding 
on  lower  edge  to  cover  joint  with  plaster.  The  front  string  is  to  be  carried  around  well  hole. 

The  rail  is  to  be  3^"  x 4 double  moulded,  bolted  together  and  to  all  posts,  to  be  of 
quartered  oak.  The  balusters  to  be  if"  x if"  turned,  of  quartered  oak.  The  posts  to  be  4"x4", 
of  quartered  oak. 

The  rear  stairs  to  attic  are  to  have  treads  and  risers  tongued  and  grooved  together  and 
housed  into  the  strings  in  the  same  manner  as  main  stairs.  Treads  to  have  a nosing  on  the  edge 
with  a cove  under.  The  wall  stiings  to  be  moulded  on  top  to  correspond  with  adjoining  base. 
The  treads,  risers  and  platforms  are  to  be  of  clear  Georgia  pine. 

The  posts  to  be  4"  x 4",  turned,  of  whitewood. 

The  rail  to  be  3 x 3^",  double  moulded,  of  whitewood. 

The  balusters  to  be  if"  x if",  turned  and  set  three  to  a tread  and  f"  front  strings  with  a 
mould  on  lower  edge,  both  balusters  and  strings  to  be  whitewood. 

Construct  the  cellar  stairs  with  1^"  mill-dressed  spruce  strings  and  |"  hard-pine  treads  and 
risers.  Provide  a rail  of  2"  x 3"  pine  with  4"  x 4"  pine  post. 

METAL  WORK 

Roojs.  Cover  the  roofs  of  front  and  rear  piazza,  bay  windows  and  bulkhead  with  N.  & G. 
Taylor  Co.’s  “M.  F.”  tin  in  sheets  10"  x 14"  in  size,  with  three  nails  to  each  sheet,  well  soldered. 

Paint  all  tinwork  of  roofs  on  the  under  side  with  two  coats  best  lead  and  oil  paint. 

V alleys.  lane  the  valleys  16"  wide  with  14  oz.  copper,  with  end  joints  locked  and 
soldered  and  edges  nailed  to  roof  with  galvanized  nails  every  12". 

Flashings.  Flash  as  required  around  all  dormers,  and  masonry  coming  in  connection  with 
the  roof  with  14  oz.  copper  5"  wide,  turned  up  2^". 

Flash  against  all  masonry  coming  in  connection  with  the  roof  with  4 lb.  sheet  lead  worked 
2"  into  joints  of  masonry,  cemented  in  with  slaters’  cement,  and  brought  down  to  within  of 
the  shingles.  Such  flashing  to  be  stepped  on  the  rakes. 

Flash  over  all  windows  and  doors  with  14  oz.  copper. 

Put  aprons  under  dormer  window  sills,  nailed  to  back  side  of  sill  and  extending  3"  on  the 
roof,  of  14  oz.  copper. 

Leaders.  Furnish  and  put  up  3"  galvanized-iron  conductors  where  required  or  directed  on 
main  house,  and  2 galvanised  iron  on  piazzas  where  required. 

Gas  Fitting.  The  Contractor  will  tap  the  main  in  the  street,  obtaining  the  necessary 
permit,  excavating  for  the  same  and  paying  the  required  charges. 

Furnish  and  put  in  the  gas  pipes  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Hilltown  Gas  Light 
Company,  with  outlets  where  marked  on  drawings. 

All  branch  outlets  are  to  be  taken  from  the  top  or  side  of  running  lines.  The  whole  system 


312 


The  Country  House 

is  to  be  free  from  taps  or  low  places,  and  is  to  decline  with  a fall  toward  the  meter  located  in 
the  basement. 

All  nipples  are  to  project  from  the  face  of  timber.  All  drops  are  to  be  made  perfectly 
plumb  by  screwing  a 12"  piece  of  pipe  on  the  nipple  and  trying  with  a square  or  level.  All  side 
lights  are  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  walls. 

All  pipes  to  be  best  wrought  iron,  all  fittings  malleable  iron.  All  put  together  with  red  lead, 
capped,  tested  and  proved  perfectly  tight  before  plastering  is  done. 


PAINTING 


Painted  Work.  Putty  up  all  nail  holes,  cracks  or  other  defects  after  priming. 

Paint  all  exterior  woodwork,  unless  otherwise  specified,  three  coats  of  best  linseed  oil  paint, 
in  colours  directed. 

Paint  all  metal  work  three  coats  of  best  metal  paint. 

The  hard-pine  floors  of  steps  and  piazzas  to  be  given  two  coats  of  pure  linseed  oil. 

Paint  all  woodwork  in  second  story  throughout,  and  cement  wainscots  of  the  two  bathrooms 
and  toilet  room  on  second  floor,  and  outside  of  all  bathtubs,  three  coats  of  pure  linseed-oil  paint  in 
colours  as  directed,  with  a coat  of  white  shellac  after  the  first  coat.  The  last  coat  to  contain  some 
varnish. 

Natural-Wood  Finish.  In  natural-wood  finish  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  putty  match 
the  finish  in  colour. 

All  such  work  must  be  cleaned  from  dirt,  finger  marks,  etc.,  and  all  rough  spots  must  be 
sandpapered.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  painter  to  inspect  all  woodwork  and  floors  which  are  to  be 
finished,  and  if  such  work  is  not  in  proper  condition  for  finishing  he  shall  notify  the  Architect. 

The  wood  finish  of  the  first-story  hall,  vestibule,  toilet,  library  and  dining  room  to  be  finished 
as  follows: 

First.  One  coat  of  best  wood  filler,  with  stain  in  colour  as  directed,  properly  and  evenly  filling 
the  grain  of  the  wood  by  rubbing  in  and  cleaning  off  while  wet.  When  dry  give: 

Second.  One  thin  coat  of  white  shellac  rubbed  down  smooth  with  No.  00  sandpaper. 

Third  and  Fourth.  Two  coats  of  Murphy  Varnish  Co.’s  “Transparent  Wood  Finish, 
Interior.”  Rub  between  these  two  last  coats  with  haircloth,  and  rub  the  last  coat  with  pumice  stone 
and  water  to  a dead,  even  surface. 

Finish  the  woodwork  of  kitchen,  rear  hall,  porch,  pantry,  butler’s  pantry,  laundry,  water 
closet  and  cold  closet  as  follows: 

First.  One  thin  coat  of  pure  linseed  oil. 

Second  and  Third.  Two  coats  of  best  spar  varnish. 

Finish  the  woodwork  of  entire  third  story  with  one  coat  of  stain  in  colour  as  directed,  one 
coat  of  wax  finish  well  rubbed  in. 

The  outside  front  door  to  be  filled  with  best  filler,  stained  as  directed,  and  given  three  coats 
of  best  exterior  varnish,  rubbed  with  pumice  stone  and  oil. 

Finish  the  floor  of  first-story  hall,  vestibule,  dining  room,  library  and  treads  of  front  stairs 
as  follows: 

First.  One  coat  of  best  oil  stain  in  colour  as  directed,  properly  and  evenly  filling  the  grain 
of  the  wood  by  rubbing  in  and  cleaning  off  while  wet.  When  dry  give  one  thin  coat  shellac  and 
follow  with  two  coats  of  Butcher’s  wax,  well  rubbed  in  and  polished. 

The  hard-pine  floors  of  kitchen,  rear  hall,  porch,  pantry,  butler’s  pantry,  laundry,  water 
closet  and  entire  third  story  to  be  given  two  coats  of  pure  linseed  oil. 

The  floors  of  all  bathrooms  and  toilet  rooms  to  be  finished  as  follows:  One  coat  linseed  oil 

and  two  coats  Murphy’s  floor  varnish. 

Enamel  Finish.  Finish  the  woodwork  in  reception  room  and  living  room  with  a white-enamel 
finish,  as  follows: 

One  coat  of  pure  white  lead  and  linseed  oil,  applied  carefully  so  that  the  brush  marks  will 
show  as  little  as  possible.  One  coat  of  white  shellac  lightly  sandpapered,  two  coats  of  white  lead 
tinted  to  shade  required,  thinned  with  half  and  half  oil  and  turpentine  with  patent  dryer,  then 
brought  up  with  one  coat  flake-white  thinned  with  opal  varnish. 


Contract  and  Specifications  313 

Painted,  Plaster.  Paint  the  plaster  work  of  walls  in  kitchen,  rear  hall,  porch,  pantry,  butler’s 
pantry,  as  follows: 

First.  One  coat  of  best  lead  and  oil  paint. 

Second.  One  coat  of  glue  sizing. 

Third  and  Fourth.  Two  coats  of  best  lead  and  oil  paint,  with  a little  varnish  in  last  coat. 

PLUMBING 

Catting.  The  plumber  is  not  to  do  any  cutting  of  timbers.  The  carpenter  will  do  all  cutting 
for  pipes,  etc.,  and  no  floor  beams  are  to  be  cut  at  a greater  distance  than  2'  o"  from  bearings. 

Piping.  The  diameters  of  all  pipes,  as  herein  specified,  are  inside  diameters.  The 
arrangement  of  the  waste  system  is  to  be  as  direct  as  possible,  avoiding  all  unnecessary  offsets. 
The  house  drain  and  all  horizontal  waste  pipes  must  have  a fall  of  at  least  to  the  foot.  All 
vent  pipes  are  to  be  graded  to  discharge  the  water  from  condensation. 

Cast-Iron  Pipe.  All  cast-iron  pipes  and  fittings  must  be  sound,  smooth  and  cylindrical,  free 
from  cracks  and  defects,  of  a uniform  thickness,  and  of  the  grade  known  as  “Extra  Heavy.” 

All  vertical  runs  of  cast-iron  pipes  are  to  be  firmly  secured  in  position  with  strong  iron-pipe 
hooks  placed  under  each  hub,  and  all  horizontal  runs  by  strong  iron  hangers  not  more  than  5'  o" 
apart. 

All  cast-iron  pipes  are  to  be  thoroughly  coated  inside  and  outside  with  asphaltum. 

All  joints  of  cast-iron  pipes  are  to  be  made  with  picked  oakum  and  pure,  soft,  moulten  pig 
lead,  bedded  with  hammer  and  caulking  iron,  using  for  each  joint  12  ounces  of  lead  to  each  inch 
of  diameter  of  the  pipe  on  which  the  joint  is  made.  No  putty  or  cement  joints  are  to  be  made. 

Brass  Pipes.  All  pipes  where  brass  is  hereinafter  called  for  are  to  be  of  seamless  drawn 
brass  tubing,  with  brass  fittings  and  screw  unions,  put  together  in  red  lead  and  firmly  secured  in 
position  with  brass  hooks,  bands  and  hangers,  put  up  on  suitable  blocks  where  required.  All 
brass  pipes  where  they  are  exposed  to  view  are  to  hang  on  brass  hangers. 

Testing.  Before  the  fixtures  are  set  the  house  trap  is  to  be  plugged,  all  openings  in  waste, 
soil  and  drain  pipes  plugged,  and  the  entire  system  of  waste,  soil,  vent  and  drain  pipes  filled  to  the 
top  with  water  in  the  presence  of  the  .Architect  or  Inspector. 

At  the  completion  the  water  is  to  be  turned  on  in  the  presence  of  the  Architect  and  left  for 
his  inspection,  after  which  the  water  shall  be  turned  off  and  all  traps  emptied. 

If  any  defects  are  found  in  the  work  in  testing  they  must  be  repaired  and  the  tests  repeated 
until  the  work  is  found  to  be  perfectly  tight. 

House  Sewers.  The  Owner  will  run  the  house  sewer  to  connect  with  the  house  drain.  The 
connection  will  be  made  by  the  plumber.  [This  gives  a chance  for  the  installation  of  such  sewer- 
age system  as  may  be  desired.  It  does  not  mean  that  the  Owner  will  do  the  work  in  person,  but 
that  it  will  be  done  under  a separate  contract,  with  which  the  plumber  has  nothing  to  do.] 

House  Drain.  Run  a 4"  cast-iron  house  drain  from  the  foot  of  the  soil  pipe  to  a point  5'  o" 
outside  of  the  front  of  the  building,  and  connect  to  the  house  sewer  with  a tightly  cemented  joint. 

Trap  the  house  drain  with  a 4"  extra  heavy  cast-iron  running  or  half  S trap,  placed  just  inside 
the  cellar  wall,  with  a hand  hole  for  cleaning,  covered  with  a brass  screw  cap. 

Standing  Soils  and  1 1 'aslcs.  Provide  and  set  lines  of  4"  cast-iron  pipe  and  lines  of  2"  cast- 
iron  pipe  where  required,  to  serve  the  various  fixtures  shown  on  plans  or  hereinafter  specified. 
Connect  each  line  at  the  foot  of  the  house  drain  and  continue  each  line  independently  3'  o"  above 
the  roof,  leaving  the  ends  open. 

All  waste  connections  into  soils  and  standing  wastes  and  the  soil  and  waste  connections  into 
the  house  drain  are  to  be  made  with  Y branches  and  f or  tb  bends.  All  vent  connections  are  to 
be  made  with  T branches. 

Vent  Pipes.  Provide  and  run  for  the  line  of  water  closets  a 2"  cast-iron  vent  pipe  con- 
nected to  each  water-closet  trap,  and  connected  into  the  soil  pipe  above  the  highest  fixture. 

Ventilate  all  other  traps  in  the  building  bv  running  2"  cast-iron  pipes  connected  to  the  traps. 
Run  these  vent  pipes  either  into  the  soil  or  waste  lines  above  the  highest  fixtures  on  such  lines, 
or  extend  them  independently  3'  o"  above  the  roof. 

All  joints  between  the  roof  and  pipes  that  extend  through  the  roof  are  to  be  made  water  tight 


314 


The  Country  House 

by  heavy  sheet-lead  flashings  18"  square,  with  a funnel  around  the  pipe.  The  flashing  is  to  be 
securely  fastened  to  the  roof,  and  the  funnel  is  to  be  turned  over  and  caulked  into  the  hub  of  the 
iron  pipe. 

Protect  the  open  ends  of  all  soil,  waste  and  vent  pipes  above  the  roof  with  strong  wire  baskets 
properly  secured. 

Traps.  Trap  all  fixtures  in  the  building,  unless  otherwise  specified,  and  half  S or  running 
traps  of  the  same  size  and  material  as  the  wastes  from  such  fixtures.  All  traps  are  to  be  venti- 
lated as  specified  and  are  to  have  brass  trap  screws. 

Hose  Connection.  Run  a f"  galvanised-iron  pipe  to  the  two  front  sides  of  house,  with  a hose 
bibb  (N.  P.)  placed  at  the  end  of  each,  and  a lever-handled  stop  and  waste  shut-off  inside  the 
cellar  wall.  [N.  P.  means  nickel  plated.] 

Tank.  Furnish  and  set  in  roof,  directly  over  main  stairway,  a tank  6'  o"  x 3'  o"  and  2'  o" 
high.  Line  with  14  oz.  copper,  tinned. 

Connect  a lead-lined  iron  overflow  pipe  3"  from  the  top  of  the  tank,  and  run  to  the  gutter 
outside  with  a brass  flap  valve  on  end. 

Run  a iY  lead  lined  iron  pipe  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  the  overflow  pipe,  with  an 
open-way  valve  close  to  tank. 

Supply  the  tank  with  water  through  a i\"  lead-lined  iron  rising  main  from  the  sill  under  the 
main  stairway.  No  cold-water  branches  to  fixtures  are  to  be  taken  from  this  riser.  Place  a ball 
cock  on  this  supply  to  prevent  overflow. 

Provide  and  place  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  a tank  valve,  with  an  air  tube  carried  above  the 
water  level  in  the  tank,  and  from  it  run  a f"  lead-lined  iron  pipe  to  supply  the  boiler  and  fixtures. 

Water  Supplies.  The  Owner  will  bring  the  water  to  the  house,  where  the  plumber  will  make 
proper  connections  with  the  house  system.  [This  gives  a chance  for  the  Owner  to  install  such 
system  of  water  supply  as  the  case  may  demand.] 

Run  the  necessary  branches  as  required  and  specified.  Place  a lever-handled  shut-off  on 
the  main  supply  just  inside  the  cellar  wall.  All  supplies  are  to  be  graded  so  they  will  drain  dry. 
All  hot  and  cold  water  lines  are  to  be  placed  at  least  1"  apart.  No  cock  is  to  be  placed  at  the  end 
of  a line  pipe,  but  the  pipe  must  extend  beyond  vertically  a sufficient  length  to  form  a proper  air 
chamber. 

Boiler.  Furnish  and  set  complete  where  shown  on  drawings  one  40-gallon  Badger  Bros, 
copper  boiler  set  on  galvanised-iron  stand. 

Supply  the  boiler  through  a f"  brass  pipe  where  exposed  in  kitchen,  with  a lever-handled  shut- 
off or  valve  placed  near  the  boiler. 

Connect  the  boiler  with  the  waterback  of  the  range  with  f"  brass  pipes  and  brass  couplings. 
The  boiler  is  to  have  a sediment  pipe  and  cock. 

Supply  a brass  safety  pipe,  to  be  connected  at  the  top  and  to  extend  upward  in  such  course 
as  may  be  directed  to  a height  above  that  of  the  supply  tank  in  the  attic.  At  this  point  it  is  to  turn 
down  over  the  tank,  so  that  any  discharge  may  be  taken  care  of. 

Kitchen  Sinks.  Furnish  and  set  complete  in  kitchen,  where  shown,  one  24"  x 40"  soap- 
stone sink,  with  12"  back  and  soap  cup,  5"  brass  strainer  and  coupling. 

Supply  the  sink  with  hot  and  cold  water.  Cold-water  supply  to  be  f"  lead-lined  iron  pipe; 
hot-water  supply  to  be  f"  brass.  Both  to  have  brass  compression  cocks.  The  cold-water  cock 
to  have  a hose  end. 

Waste  through  a lead  branch  waste  connected  to  the  soil.  Fit  with  5"  jug  trap  with 
brass  trap  screw. 

Water  Closet.  Furnish  and  set  in  bathroom  one  F.  W.  Webb  Mfg.  Co.  “Lucania”  water 
closet,  55-B,  with  style  H seat,  chain  pull,  dark-cherrv  seat  and  tank. 

Furnish  and  set  complete  in  basement,  where  shown,  one  cast-iron  porcelain-lined  short 
hopper,  with  cistern  18"  x 10"  x 10"  on  brackets. 

Fit  with  N.  P.  chain  and  hardwood  pull  and  hardwood  seat  and  lid,  i^"  lead  flush  pipe. 
Connect  closet  to  soil  with  a 4"  lead  branch. 

Wash  Trays.  Furnish  and  set  in  laundry,  where  shown,  a three-part  soapstone  wash  tray, 
with  soap  cups.  Provide  with  polished-brass  chains  and  plugs  and  rubber  stoppers. 

Supply  each  part  with  hot  and  cold  water,  cold  water  through  f"  lead-lined  iron  pipe  and 


Contract  and  Specifications  315 

hot  water  through  f"  brass  pipe.  Both  to  have  brass  compression  cocks.  One  cold-water 
faucet  to  be  a hose  cock. 

Waste  through  2"  branch,  connected  to  the  soil  and  trapped  with  4"  jug  trap. 

Bathtubs.  Furnish  and  set  complete  in  bathroom,  where  shown,  one  F.  W.  ^ebb  Mfg. 
Co.’s  966-B  tub,  5'  o",  fitted  with  1048-B  cocks  and  1024-B  waste.  Tub  to  be  enamelled  white 
outside. 

Trap  waste,  with  4"  jug  trap  and  nickel-plated  trap  screw.  All  pipes  exposed  to  be  nickel 
plated. 

Lavatories.  Furnish  and  set  complete  in  bathroom  one  F.  W.  Webb  Mfg.  Co.’s  656-B 
lavatory. 

Furnish  and  set  complete  in  dressing  room  of  Owner’s  chamber  a duplicate  of  above. 
Furnish  and  set  complete  in  toilet  room  off  from  hall,  first  floor,  one  F.  W.  Webb  Mfg.  Co.’s 
1009-C  enameled  iron  lavatory  fitted  with  Belmont  cocks  and  nickel-plated  Brooklin  trap. 

Pantry  Sink.  Furnish  and  set  complete  in  china  closet  one  i6,/x24"  recessed  and 
encased  pantry  sink,  with  nickel-plated  standing  waste  and  overflow,  fitted  with  nickel-plated 
pantry  cocks. 


In  the  above  form  of  specifications,  the  actual  brands  of  materials  and  fittings 
and  firm  name  have  been  retained  as  given  in  the  original.  This  is  not  intended 
to  convey  the  idea  that  they  are  to  be  preferred  to  others  or  that  there  are  not 
others  equally  as  good  and  perhaps  better. 

We  make  this  explanation  out  of  fairness  to  the  manufacturers. 


A shingled  house,  typical  in  the  irregularity  of  its  exterior.  Little  & Browne,  architects 


Wyanhoe,”  James  River,  Virginia,  showing  the  homelike  simplicity  of  the  small-paned  A modern  type  of  American  country  house,  suggestive  of  the  English,  built  of  stone  and 
windows  of  our  forefathers  half-timber.  Robert  S.  Stephenson*  architect 


sides  add  richness  to  an  otherwise  plain  motive 


House  at  Bronxville,  N.  Y.  Wm.  A.  Bates,  architect.  Cost  about  $7,000 


CHAPTER  XVII 
Practical  Hints 

HE  diverse  and  scattered  hints  included  in  this  chapter  are  such 
as  were  not  properly  a part  of  any  of  the  foregoing  chapters, 
and  yet  of  enough  importance  to  be  included  in  some  form  or 
other.  Therefore  they  have  been  gathered  together  under  the 
above  heading  and  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  such  being 
the  only  systematic  arrangement  possible. 

Balcony.  It  is  often  found  necessary  in  balcony  construc- 
tion to  give  some  practical  support  which  shall  not  make  it  necessary  for  the 
brackets  or  other  supporting  motive  to  carry  all  or  in  fact  any  of  the  load  which 
they  are  supposed  to.  In  the  balloon  frame  this  may  be  accomplished,  where 
the  inside  floor  timbers  run  parallel  to  the  wall  from  which  the  balcony  springs, 
by  extending  the  balcony  timbers  over  a ledger  board  within  the  building  for 
a certain  distance  necessary  to  give  the  desired  support  (see  Fig.  55).  This  is 
really,  as  will  be  seen,  the  cantilever  principle,  omitting  the  truss. 

“Bed  and  Build.”  The  bed  of  a brick  or  stone  is  the  lower  horizontal 
surface  on  which  it  is  laid  in  the  wall;  the  build  is  its  vertical  surface  or 
height. 

Bridging.  Cross  bridging  is  nailed  to  the  top  sides  of  the  floor  timbers 
before  the  floor  boarding  is  secured.  This  nailing  of  the  flooring  to  the  floor 
timbers  tends  to  draw  up  such  timbers  as  are  in  any  way  slightly  out;  any 
further  correction  is  made  by  nailing  the  lower  ends  of  the  cross  bridging.  In  this 
way  deficient  places  may  be  forced  into  line  through  the  truss-like  agency  of  the 

318 


Practical  Hints 


319 


*4wwm 


bridging.  This  final  nailing  is  not  done  until  just  before  it  becomes  necessary  to 
furr  and  lath  the  ceiling.  By  this  time  every  member  should  have  found  its  bearing. 

Straight  bridging  used  between  floor  timbers  should  have  its  grain  running 
horizontally,  as  do 

Upright  Section. 


the  timbers  them- 
selves. Thus  the 
shrinkage  of  both 
members  may  be 
assumed  to  be  the 
same. 

Bulkhead  Door. 
To  avoid  the  usual 
drawbacks  of  the 
ordinary  bulkhead, 
the  door  may  be 
stilted  on  the  hatch- 
way by  means  of  a 
strip  across 
battens  (see  Fig.  56). 
This  should  be  set 


n 


Partial  Plan, 


LOT 


a.  Studding 

b.  Floor  timbers 

c.  Rough  boarding 


Fig.  55.  Section  and  plan  of  self-supporting  balcony  construction 

d.  Plastering  g.  Sheathing  m.  Metal  flooring 

e.  Flooring  h.  t-inish  board 

f.  Ledger  board  k.  Drip 


n.  Threshold 

o.  Door 


back  3"  from  what  would  be  the  hinge  edge  of  the  door.  The  interval  between 
the  battens  is  furred  in  so  as  to  leave  no  holes  on  the  side.  1 he  head  of  the 
door  can  be  protected  by  a hood,  in  the  manner  shown,  which  will  turn  back 
out  of  the  way  and  fasten  by  a hook  to  the  house.  Of  course  this  calls  for  the 
opening  of  the  hood  every  time  the  door  is  to  be  opened,  but  the  door  is  so  seldom 
used  that  this  hardly  seems  an  objection.  This  hood  should  of  course  project 
slightly  over  the  door  on  either  side.  Variations  of  the  above  suggestion  may  be 
made,  but  it  seems  to  be  fairly  simple 
as  it  is. 

Ceilings.  Low  ceilings  may  often 
be  given  the  effect  of  height  by  tinting 
them  in  some  light,  retiring  colour,  as  a 
blue  or  green.  On  the  same  principle, 
the  high  ceiling  may  be  reduced  by  tint- 
ing it  a rather  full  shade  of  red  or  brown. 

Cesspool.  There  are  often  times 
when  one’s  neighbour  will  for  some 
unknown  reason  build  his  cesspool 
over  near  one’s  well.  With  the  idea  of 
self-protection,  it  may  be  advisable  to 
construct  a sort  of  a wall  and  drain  in 
attempting  to  keep  this  nuisance  from 
permeating  your  water  supply.  This 
wall  should  be  carried  as  near  the  cess- 
pool as  possible,  even  on  your  neighbour’s  land,  if  such  can  be  done.  It  should 
run  for  some  distance  on  either  side,  so  as  to  avoid  any  leakage  getting  around 


Fig.  56.  Sketch  showing  the  weather-tight  construction  of  a 
bulkhead  or  hatchway  door 


a.  Matched  sheathing 

b.  Turning-strip 

c.  Turning-strip  to  close 

d.  Hatchway  cap 

e.  Drip 


f.  Hinge 

g.  Stop 

h.  Weather-strip 

k.  Turning  on  either  side  of  strip 
x.  Hood 


320 


The  Country  House 


Fig.  57.  Section  through  a pro 
tecting  wall,  and  drain 


the  end  of  it,  and  it  should  be  carried  as  deep  as  may  be  practical.  This  wall  con- 
sists of  a solid  wall  of  stone  laid  in  cement,  a wall  of  puddled  clay  and  a dry  wall  of 
small  stone  containing  a porous  drain  (see  Fig.  57.)  The  dry  wall  should  be  of 
course  on  the  side  of  the  cesspool.  It  may  not  be  practical  to  use  this  in  every 

case,  but  there  are  many  instances  where  it  may  be  worth 
a trial  and  serve  to  save  the  water  supply  from  destruction. 

Chimneys.  Where  chimneys  are  set  in  the  outer  wall 
of  a house  and  at  the  lower  pitch  of  the  roof  they  are  very 
apt  to  smoke  badly  in  cases  where  the  wind  comes  down 
over  the  ridge.  1 his  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  wind  natu- 
rally follows  the  line  of  the  roof,  and  consequently  goes 
down  the  chimney  rather  than  over  it.  To  remedy  this 
defect  the  chimneys  should  be  carried  to  a considerable 
height,  and  even  that  may  not  entirely  do  away  with  the 
trouble.  For  these  reasons  it  is  best  that  the  chimney  be 
located  in  the  inner  walls  of  the  house  or  in  some  gable  end. 

Closets,  Outside.  There  are  several  styles  of  outside 
water  closets  which  may  be  used  where  heat  is  not  practi- 
cal to  prevent  their  freezing.  The  main  points  in  all  of 
these  is  the  protection  from  the  frost  of  all  pipes,  traps 
and  valves  which  hold  water,  and  the  quick  draining  of 
such  pipes  as  convey  water.  These  closets  usually  work  automatically,  by  the 
weight  applied  to  the  stool  when  in  use. 

About  the  only  form  of  outside  privy  or  closet  is  that  suggested  by  Mr. 
Lawler,  and  shown  in  Fig.  58.  This  type  will  make  a serviceable  closet  for  the 

summer  cottage  which  does  not  boast  of  an  inside  water 
closet.  The  vault  is  built  of  masonry,  so  as  to  hold 
water.  The  soil  pipe  to  the  cesspool  is  trapped  where  it 
enters  the  vault.  The  water  from  the  roof  is  carried  into 
this  last,  and  is  calculated  to  keep  a certain  amount  of 
water  in  the  vault.  With  the  idea  that  a scarcity  of  rain 
may  cause  the  lowering  of  the  water  so  as  to  uncover  the 
trap,  we  have  introduced  a sliding  indicator  which  is  con- 
trolled by  a float  in  the  vault.  When  the  water  falls  the 
float  naturally  goes  with  it,  and  the  red  field  (r)  comes 
into  sight  in  the  slot  (s).  At  such  time  the  vault  must  be 
filled  artificially.  The  house  leaders  may  connect  with  this. 

Composting.  All  refuse  capable  of  fermentation  or 
decay  should  be  composted  in  the  following  manner:  It 
should  be  spread  thinly  on  a dry  loam  bed  in  some  out- 
of-the-way  spot  and  covered  or  mixed  with  a sprinkling  of 
some  light,  dry,  absorbent  substance,  as  wood  ashes,  saw- 
dust, dry  mould,  peat,  spent  vegetable  ashes,  marl,  crushed 
straw  or  dry  loam.  As  one  layer  becomes  dry  and  hard- 
ened a second  may  be  placed  on  top  of  it.  In  this  manner  the  composting  bed 
will  accumulate,  and  be  ready  at  the  end  of  the  season  for  digging  into  the  garden. 


Fig.  58.  An  outside  closet  for 
rural  districts 


Practical  Hints 


321 


It  is  not  best  that  this  bed  should  be  in  a hollow  so  as  to  hold  water;  if  it  be  on  a 
slightly  convex  surface  the  result  is  better  as  moisture  retards  the  action  of  the  air. 

Details,  Exterior.  There  is  one  point  that  may  well  be  considered  in  con- 
nection with  exterior  details.  Such  projecting  mouldings  and  deep  carving  as  may 
offer  a foothold  or  receptacle  for  the  litter  of  birds  is  often  annoying  in  the 
extreme.  In  some  localities  the  English  sparrow  is  so  abundant  as  to  become  a 
positive  nuisance  in  this  respect.  We  have  often  seen  the  Corinthian  capital  enclosed 
with  an  ugly  mass  of  netting  to  prevent  the  birds  from  building  their  nests  in  its 
crevices.  It  is  probably  hard  to  admit  that  we  must  limit  ourselves  to  a certain 
extent  in  our  architectural  details,  yet  many  times  such  considerations  would  seem 
to  be  a wise  proceeding. 

Disinfectants.  A powerful  destroyer  of  animal  organism  bacteria  may  be 
made  in  a solution  of  one  part  carbolic  acid  to  from  40  to  100  parts  water.  It  can 
be  used  on  garbage,  drains,  etc.,  with  good  results. 

Charcoal  is  an  absorbent  of  foul  gases  and  general  impurities.  It  is  said  to 
possess  the  power  not  only  of  absorbing  gases  but  of  destroying  them  when 
absorbed.  Being  very  porous,  its  capacity  for  holding  condensed  gases  is  eight 
times  its  bulk.  It  is  therefore  a valuable  agent  about  the  country  house,  particu- 
larly in  the  cellar. 

Driveway.  The  most  practical  form  of  driveway  or  walk  construction  is 
made  by  excavating  a shallow  trench,  say  from  8"  to  12"  deep,  and  in  laying  in  as 
an  under  course  a layer  of  fairly  coarse 
stones.  Upon  this  place  a layer  of  smaller 
stones,  with  a finishing  layer  of  crushed 
stone  or  gravel.  The  gutters  may  be  made 
in  the  form  of  a blind  drain,  and  the  medium  stones  used  in  connection  with  a 
porous  horseshoe  tile  (see  Fig.  59).  The  discharge  should  naturally  be  cared  for. 

Echo.  It  is  readily  noticed  that  a bare  room  will  give  forth  an  echo. 
Sometimes,  too,  the  furnished  room  may  be  guilty  of  the  same  indiscretion.  A 
remedy  that  has  been  tried  with  success,  and  which  is  based  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple that  governs  the  correction  of  the  echo  by  the  furnishings  of  the  room,  is 
to  introduce  projecting  motives  or  loose  hangings  at  the  point  where  the  echo 
seems  to  exist,  which  is  calculated  to  rectify  this  annoying  condition. 

Faucet.  '1  he  whistling  in  compression  cocks  is  more  apt  to  be  due  to 
vibration  than  to  air.  Running  water  coming  in  contact  with  such  parts  of  the 
faucet  as  are  not  absolutely  rigid  cause  a vibration  of  these  parts.  Should  this  be 
excessive  the  faucet  will  probably  have  to  be  tightened. 

Fire.  As  a safeguard  to  protect  the  roof  against  fire,  a if"  pipe  may  be 
attached  to  the  ridge  and  a series  of  perforations  made  in  each  side  of  it,  so  that 
a stream  of  water  turned  into  it  from  two  or  more  connections  would  play  at  once 
on  each  side  of  the  roof.  This  is  an  easy  and  effective  method  of  wetting  down 
the  roof  in  case  of  flying  sparks,  and  might  well  be  adopted  in  localities  of  wooded 
growth.  It  is  possible  to  apply  the  same  scheme  to  the  walls  of  the  house  itself. 

In  case  the  house  be  not  fitted  with  regular  standpipe  for  fire  purposes,  it  is 
well  to  have  on  each  floor,  including  the  attic  if  possible,  one  hose  bib-cock  or 
faucet,  with  a coil  of  hose  handy  in  cases  of  emergency. 


Fig.  59.  Section  of  bed  of  drive 


322  The  Country  House 

Fowl.  We  often  see  pictures  of  beautiful  gardens  in  which  peacocks  roam  free. 
Now  this  is  hardly  practical,  for  this  fowl  and  for  many  others,  where  choice 
flowers  are  to  be  raised.  The  birds  may  do  much  more  damage  in  a short  time 
than  they  are  really  worth  as  decorative  features  or  otherwise. 

Framing.  Use  care  in  cutting  into  framing  timbers;  too  much  cutting  will 
tend  to  weaken  the  structure  more  than  it  will  gain  in  strength 
by  too  much  f raming  in. 

Garden.  A still  body  of  water,  as  a pool,  may  play  a 
very  important  part  in  the  garden  layout,  owing  to  its 
natural  powers  of  reflection.  The  house,  or  some  important 
motive  of  the  garden,  may  become  a hundred-fold  more  im- 
pressive with  the  introduction  of  a still  body  of  water  between 
it  and  the  most  important  point  from  which  it  is  to  be  seen. 

Garden,  Japanese.  In  the  installation  of  a Japanese 
garden  on  a scale  smaller  than  nature,  it  should  be  under- 
stood at  the  start  that  any  conflict  between  this  and  natural 
objects  of  full  scale  will  utterly  ruin  the  scheme.  For  in- 
stance, if  your  garden  is  so  placed  that  your  neighbour’s  cow 
may  look  over  the  fence  at  you  while  you  are  contemplating 
its  excellence,  the  advantages  are  all  with  the  cow. 

Garden,  Kitchen.  The  kitchen  garden  should  be 
planned  with  the  idea  that  the  rows  of  planting  shall  run 
north  and  south.  In  this  manner  both  sides  of  the  row 
receive  the  sun  some  time  during  the  day,  provided  of  course 
that  there  are  no  trees  or  other  obstruction  to  shade  it.  It 
is  perhaps  well  to  provide  a windbreak  of  trees  to  shelter  it. 
This  will  be  found  invaluable  in  the  case  of  corn  or  like  tall 
and  frail  growth. 

Gutters.  Gutters  and  conductors  may  be  protected  to  a considerable  ex- 
tent from  deposits  of  leaves  and  the  like  by  building  in  under  the  lower  course 
of  shingle  a narrow  strip  of  copper  screening  of  about  mesh.  This  strip  should 
project  slightly  over  the  nose  of  the  gutter.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  get  at  the  in- 
side of  the  gutter  this  strip  of  screening  may  be  turned  back,  the  lower  being 
unfastened;  in  replacing  it,  it  may  be  necessary  to  fasten  it  to  the  gutter  nose  with 
a few  small  staples  in  order  to  keep  it  in  place.  In  a case  where  overhanging 
trees  exist  this  expedient  may  be  of  much  service. 

Hangings.  The  appearance  of  coolness  and  of  warmth  may  be  largely 
influenced  by  the  colour  of  the  hangings.  The  warm  colours  naturally  suggest 
warmth  and  the  retiring  colours  coolness.  The  red  or  warm  brown  or  yellow 
hanging  for  winter  use  may  do  much  to  influence  and  carry  out  the  general  im- 
pression of  warmth  and  glow. 

Heat.  By  the  use  of  excessive  artificial  heat  air  becomes  artificially  dry.  To 
obviate  this  a vessel  containing  water  should  be  placed  in  the  room  near  the 
source  of  heat. 

Hedges.  We  often  see  old  spruce  and  cedar  hedges  which  have  become 
slightly  “ worm-eaten  ” or  dead  in  parts  so  as  to  be  very  irregular.  Oftentimes  these 


An  inexpensive  form  of 
flower  trellis,  which  might  be 
built  for  $5  or  so 


Practical  Hints 


323 


may  be  repaired  to  a certain  extent  by  clipping  on  the  lines  of  these  irregular 
imperfections,  with  results  both  pleasing  and  in  good  taste.  This  scheme  has 
already  been  carried  out  with  the  above  results. 

Laths.  All  laths  that  show  knots  or  stains  or  portions  of  bark  should  be 
rejected,  as  such  will  be  sure  to  stain  the  plastering.  Such  stains  can  never  be  cov 
ered  up  by  any  plaster  finish,  and  are  even  apt  to  force  their  way  through  wall  paper. 

Lumber.  It  is  often  possible,  in  some  rural  districts,  to  build  the  inexpensive 
house  to  a certain  extent  of  second-hand  lumber.  When  this  is  done  one  should 
make  sure  that  the  stock  is  sound  and  not  suffering  from  dry  rot.  It  should  never 
be  used  for  exposed  work  nor  for  the  principal  sticks  in  the  frame.  The  carpenter 
is  apt  to  object  to  this,  and  naturally,  too,  as  he  may  be  obliged  to  saw  into  more 
nails  than  his  contract  calls  for. 

Mouldings.  On  the  principle  that  a piece  of  wood  planed  on  both  sides  and 
later  disturbed  by  the  moulding  tool,  as  in  the  case  of  the  wooden  moulded  casing, 
will  curl  or  warp  toward  the  side  which  has  thus  been  cut  away,  it  is  customary 
to  reduce  the  back  of  a casing  slightly,  leaving  a 
slight  margin  on  either  edge  so  as  to  obviate  this. 

Should  the  moulding  on  the  face  of  the  casing  Fig.60.  sections  of  casings 

be  deep  enough  to  still  occasion  a slight  warping, 

this  reduction  will  prevent  it  from  pulling  away  from  the  other  members  and 
leaving  a crack,  as  the  slight  depth  of  the  reduction  keeps  the  centre  from  reaching 
a bearing  on  the  supporting  member  and  thus  throwing  out  the  edges  (see  Fig.  60). 

Pictures.  In  setting  the  studs  in  the  walls  of  the  principal  rooms  it  is  advis- 
able that  a heavy  stud  be  placed  exactly  in  the  centre  of  such  sides  as  it  may  be 
desirable  to  hang  heavy  pictures  or  mirrors  from.  In  this  way  the  support  is 
absolute.  I he  spacings  may  be  made  in  any  order,  as  long  as  they  are  marked  on 
the  plans  with  their  correct  locations  so  that  they  may  not  be  forgotten. 

Pictures  should  not  be  hung  at  too  great  an  angle  to  the  wall,  unless  it  be 
absolutely  necessary  to  do  so  in  order  that  they  may  be  properly  seen.  The  lines  of 
an  inclined  picture  frame  never  harmonize  with  any  other  lines  in  the  room,  thus 
the  picture  that  is  so  used  becomes  a foreign  element  which  does  not  belong  in  the 
space  that  it  occupies. 

Pigeons.  Paint  the  roof  of  a pole  house  white,  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
located  by  young  birds  and  serve  as  a guide  to  the  old  birds  in  foggy  weather. 
After  the  same  manner  the  roofs  of  dove-cotes  and  barn  vents  may  be  treated. 

Pipes.  The  cross-sectional  area  of  a service  pipe  should  equal  the  area  of 
probable  flow  as  determined  by  the  various  outlets. 

Planning.  In  making  preliminary  sketch  plans  it  is  of  great  help  to  use  a 
piece  of  cross-section  paper  in  which  the  inch  is  divided  into  eighths.  Over  this  a 
piece  of  tracing  paper  which  is  of  rough  enough  texture  to  take  the  pencil  can  be 
stretched.  Thus  we  have  a scale  which  will  make  the  free-hand  sketch  in  propor- 
tion, and  we  can  tell  better  in  this  way  whether  things  are  going  to  fit  or  not;  it 
is  also  a saving  in  time  over  the  use  of  the  ordinary  scale. 

Plaster.  An  old  way  of  drying  out  the  rough  plastering,  and  a good  one,  too, 
was  to  delay  the  placing  of  the  outside  wall  covering  until  the  plaster  had  become 
fairly  hard.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  the  cracks  in  the  wall  boarding  effected 


324 


The  Country  House 

a circulation  of  air,  which  tended  to  a more  even  drying  than  if  the  space  between 
studs  were  sealed  tightly.  In  the  case  of  back  plastering  this  is  ineffective. 

Porches.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  presence  of  thick  foliage  on 
porches,  piazzas  and  house  walls  has  a tendency  to  invite  moisture,  harbour 
insects,  and  often  shut  off  light  from  the  house.  It  should  further  be  remembered 
that  in  the  case  of  a wooden  structure,  where  the  walls,  etc.,  have  to  be  repainted, 
these  same  vines  have  to  be  removed  in  order  to  execute  the  work  properly. 
Understanding  this,  it  may  be  well  to  consider  the  advisability  of  using  the  natural- 
wood  finish,  as  this  may  be  retouched  with  spar  varnish  or  oiled  with  less  trouble, 
as  far  as  the  vines  are  concerned,  than  if  paint  was  used. 

Power.  I he  power  necessary  to  raise  a given  amount  of  water  is  calculated 
as  follows:  Multiply  the  number  of  gallons  raised  per  minute  by  8.35  (the  weight 

of  one  gallon  of  water),  and  multiply  the  product  by  the  height  in  feet  to  which 
the  water  is  to  be  raised;  this  equals  the  number  of  foot  pounds.  Divide  this  by 
33,000  (one  horsepower),  and  the  result  is  the  horsepower  required.  Allow 
15  per  cent,  for  friction. 

Pump.  It  is  always  best  to  have  a hand  force  pump  connected  in  the  pump 
house,  even  if  you  do  use  power,  so  that  in  case  the  power  should  give  out  your 
system  will  not  be  totally  disabled. 

Where  a pump  is  to  be  used  by  women  and  children,  especially  if  the  total  dis- 
tance which  the  water  is  carried  be  considerable,  an  easy  working  pump  is  an  abso- 
lute necessity.  I herefore  the  leverage  should  be  long  and  the  bore  com- 
paratively small. 


Diameter  of 
Pump  Bore 

Height  of  Lift 

Size  of  Pipe 

Gallons  per 
Minute 

Diameter  of 
Pump  Bore 

Height  of  Lift 

Size  of  Pipe 

Gallons  per 
Minute 

2 inches 

Ordinary 

f inches 

6 

3 inches 

/ Under 

18  feet 

T 

inches 

22 

( Under  18  feet 

a “ 
4 

8 

I Over 

if 

22 

2*  “ 

1 Over 

1 “ 

8 

3i  “ 

j Under 

if 

26 

| Under 

1 

12 

1 Over 

2 

26 

2h  “ 

1 Over  “ 

1 1 “ 

12 

3i  “ 

( Under 

2 

30 

f Under  “ 

T “ 

15 

lOver 

9 — 
24 

3° 

2f  “ 

l Over 

U “ 

15 

Radiators.  The  pounding  often  noticed  in  the  pipes  of  the  steam  radiator,  and 
commonly  called  “water  hammer,”  can  be  prevented  by  locating  the  horizontal 
return  pipes  in  the  basement  at  a level  below  the  water  line  in  the  boiler;  or,  in 
other  words,  by  putting  the  return  pipe  where  it  belongs. 

In  an  indirect  system  never  allow  one  coil  to  supply  two  outlet  registers; 
always  give  a separate  coil  to  each  room. 

Direct  radiators,  especially  those  of  steam,  should,  if  large,  be  made  in 
sections,  so  that  but  one  section  may  be  used  if  desired.  This  will  be  found  of 
much  practical  value  in  regulating  the  supply  of  heat  in  mild  weather,  which  feat  is 
most  difficult  with  the  radiator  of  the  ordinary  single  type. 

Right-Angled  Triangle.  In  laying  out  a building  without  the  assistance  of  a 
surveyor  it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  make  the  comers  of  the  building  absolutely 
square.  A simple  method  of  effecting  this  is  by  laying  out  a correct  right-angled 
triangle,  which  is  done  in  the  following  manner  (see  Fig.  61):  Supposing  A to 


Practical  Hints 


325 


Fig.  61.  Showing  the  laying  out  of  a right-angled  triangle 


be  the  corner  of  the  building,  measure  off  from  this  on  the  line  of  the  established 
side  66',  and  drive  a nail  accurately  into  some  sort  of  wooden  stake,  which  would  be 
point  B.  Then  take  two  tapes  and  put  the  ring  of  one  about  the  nail  at  A and 
the  ring  of  the  other  about  the  nail  at  B and  stretch  them  in  the  direction  of  C. 
By  making  the  distance  on  the  A tape  49^'  and  that  on  the  B tape  82^',  the  inter- 
section of  the  tapes  at  these  points  will  be  the  true  point,  C, 
and  the  triangle  thus  formed  will  be  a true  right-angled  triangle. 

This  may  be  made  on  the  smaller  scales  of  g',  12'  and 
15'  and  of  3',  4'  and  5'.  Carpenters  often  use  wooden  squares 
made  on  the  3',  4'  and  5'  sizes. 

Roofs.  An  ordinary  roof  20'  x 40'  is  800  square  feet.  The 
largest  amount  of  water  in  gallons  that 
one  may  expect  to  collect  from  it  may  be 
roughly  determined  by  multiplying  one- 
half  the  area  in  feet  by  7.10.  Therefore 
it  is  possible  to  get  2,840  gallons  from 
the  above  roof;  1,480  gallons  is,  however, 
about  the  average  quantity. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  make  a roof 
for  shingle  or  slate  much  flatter  in  its  pitch  than  30°.  The  lower  pitches  are 
hardly  to  be  trusted  where  this  covering  is  used,  and  such  should  be  covered 
with  metal. 

Shaving  Bay.  For  the  shaver  who  has  cut  himself  often,  through  the  poor 
provisions  of  the  ordinary  house,  Fig.  62  is  offered  as  a consolation  and  a balm.  It 
can  be  varied  to  suit  the  taste,  but  its  principle  seems  good.  It  is  simply  a bay 
about  6'  wide,  adjoining  the  bathroom  and  having  one  door  into  it  and  another 
into  the  hallway.  A mirror  is  affixed  to  the  front  side  and  lighted  by  windows 
from  the  right  and  left.  A shelf  is  built  to  connect  from  one  side  to  the  other 
and  is  fitted  with  a washbowl  on  one  side;  drawers  are  placed  underneath  where 

desired.  This  shelf  should  be  about 
the  height  of  an  ordinary  washbowl  and 
the  window  stool  should  sit  upon  it.  The 
top  of  the  mirror  itself  should  not  be 
more  than  6'  4"  high,  and  a light  placed 
at  the  top  and  close  to  it.  Another  light 
should  be  placed  about  eighteen  inches 
to  the  left  of  the  mirror  (b),  so  that  it 
can  be  used  at  night  and  receive  light 
from  both  sides.  The  razor  strop  can 
be  hung  under  the  slight  projecting  shelf 
in  front  of  mirror  (a). 

This  scheme  seems  practical  for 
both  the  large  and  the  small  house.  It 
can  be  made  a part  of  the  bathroom,  in 
which  case  the  tub  could  be  placed  across  the  inner  end  and  the  toilet  be  made  a 
separate  room,  as  it  should  be  in  any  case.  Each  should  have  a separate  entrance. 


Fig.  62, 


A bay  window  arranged  especially  for  convenience  in 
shaving 

e-  Window 


a.  Mirror 

b.  Mirror 


c.  Shelf 

d.  Washbowl 


326 


The  Country  House 


Shingles.  The  practical  laying  of  shingles  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  63.  The 
lower  course  is  a double  course,  the  under  one  of  which  has  from  2"  to  3"  sawed  off 
the  butts.  They  are  ordinarily  laid  4^"  or  5"  to  the  weather,  and  no  shingle  wider 
than  8"  should  be  laid  without  being  split.  The  vertical  joints  should  never  be 
broken  for  a less  distance  than  1";  a trifle  more  is  better.  The  nailings  occur 

on  a line  slightly  below  the  centre  of  the 
shingle  from  butt  to  tail  and  should  not 
be  too  near  the  edge,  nor  should  they  be 
exposed  in  the  joint  between  two  shingles. 
A wider  shingle  should  have  three  nail- 
mgs,  the  narrow  ones  two. 

Shrinkage.  To  obviate  the  possibility 
of  unequal  shrinkage  of  floor  timbers, 
which  would  tend  to  a settlement  of  the 
inner  walls,  it  is  always  best  that  the  total 
depth  of  floor  timber  and  supporting 
girder,  and  depth  of  floor  timber  to  firm 
bearing  in  the  underpinning,  should  be  as 
nearly  as  may  be  possible  the  same.  If 
a 10"  floor  timber  rests  upon  the  outside 
brick  wall,  with  the  full  10"  from  the  top  of  the  timber  to  its  solid  bearing,  and 
this  same  timber  be  supported  by  a girder,  even  though  it  be  sized  upon  this  latter 
member,  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  depth  of  shrinkable  wood  is  greater  in  the  case 
of  the  latter  bearing,  and  that  consequently  the  settlement  will  be  much  greater  at 
this  point.  To  obviate  this  the  timbers  should  be  framed  into  the  girder  so  as 
to  bring  the  supporting  pier  as  near  as  possible  to  the  height  of  the  brick  support 
of  the  floor  timber  in  the  outer  wall. 

Sink.  The  kitchen  sink  is  not  intended  to  carry  off  anything  but  water;  tea 
and  coffee  grounds  and  other  refuse  surely  do  not  belong  in  it.  Have  a grease  trap 
installed  and  looked  to  frequently.  Potash  or  lye  can  be  used,  or  sal  soda  and  boil- 
ing water,  to  cut  away  obstructions,  oftentimes  with  success,  but  this  is  only  when 
such  obstructions  are  slight.  Hot  water  forced  into  the  pipe  through  a short 
piece  of  hose  or  special  pump  may  sometimes  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Much  of  this  difficulty  may  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  a special  flushing  de- 
vice, which  is  attached  to  the  waste  pipe  and  which  holds  several  gallons  of  water. 
When  nearly  filled  with  water  from  the  sink  it  overflows  and  forms  a syphon,  which 
empties  it  entirely.  This  intermittent  discharge  continues  automatically. 

Site.  As  an  aid  to  the  selection  of  the  site,  some  of  the  geographical 
charts  published  by  the  Government  may  be  found  of  value  in  locating  contours 
and  the  like.  These  may  be  had  from  Washington  for  five  cents  each,  or  100  for  $2. 

Early  in  the  morning  is  the  best  time  of  the  day  to  determine  one  very 
important  feature  to  be  considered  in  the  choice  of  the  site.  At  such  times  the 
presence  of  wet  ground  may  easily  be  detected,  as  such  localities  are  overhung  with 
a slight  fog  or  mist.  The  soil  may  or  may  not  give  outward  indications  of  moisture 
other  than  this,  but  it  exists  nevertheless.  This  may  also  aid  in  locating  water 
for  the  well. 


OC  Scale. 


Practical  Hints 


32? 


Stagings.  If  one  is  in  anywise  particular  as  to  whether  his  travels  over  the 
contractor’s  stagings  are  reasonably  safe  or  not,  he  should  watch  the  building  of 
this  structure  and  assure  himself  that  there  be  enough  nails,  and  of  a size  calculated 
to  hold  it  securely.  Some  carpenters  will  pin  all  their  faith  to  one  nail,  and  often 
with  serious  results;  another  nail  or  two  would  cost  no  more  nor  take  more  time 
in  the  driving  than  would  the  other. 

Stones.  Stones  used  in  connection  with  brickwork  in  the  outside  face  of  a 
wall  must  naturally  be  of  a depth  to  equal  a certain  number  of  courses  of  brick. 
Therefore  it  is  always  advisable  that  this  dimension  should  be  marked  on  the  plans 
as  “so  many  courses.”  In  this  way  the  stone  is  bound  to  match  the  courses  of 
brick,  as  a contractor  is  responsible  for  the  correctness  of  the  figures  which  he 
gives  to  the  stonecutter.  As  bricks  vary,  it  is  a common  practice  to  lay  up  a 
small  portion  of  wall  with  such  kind  as  may  be  specified,  and  thus  the  required 
dimensions  are  easily  gotten  from  this. 

Do  not  use  stone  that  has  a marked  tendency  to  decay,  crumble,  or  otherwise 
deteriorate  and  thus  become  useless.  Some  kinds  of  sandstone  decompose  more 
rapidly  than  is  desirable.  Examples  of  this  are  seen  in  the  badly  weatherbeaten 
brownstone  fronts  in  New  York  City.  A certain  sort  of  granite,  called  red  granite, 
a product  of  the  eastern  part  of  Massachusetts  and  containing  a considerable 
quantity  of  iron,  is  in  some  forms  very  quickly  converted  into  red  gravel. 

T imbers.  There  are  often  cases  where  it  is  better  to  use  timbers  made  up  from 
two  or  more  smaller  timbers  than  to  use  one  large  stick.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  any  crack  or  other  imperfections  occurring  in  the  timber  have  a tendency  to 
weaken  the  whole  stick,  whereas  such  imperfections  in  the  made-up  timber  are  lim- 
ited to  a single  stick,  and,  as  the  grain  in  each  stick  is  different  and  the  sticks 
fastened  securely  together,  the  loss  of  strength  is  slight  as  compared  with  similar 
conditions  in  the  single  stick. 

Traps.  Be  sure  that  the  traps  in  your  summer  house  be  filled  with  water  just 
as  soon  as  the  house  is  opened  for  the  season.  The  traps  are 
very  apt  to  dry  out  when  not  in  use. 

Obstructions  in  traps  are  often  caused  by  careless  children 
and  servants,  who  throw  anything  into  the  waste  that  they  wish 
to  dispose  of.  Burnt  matches  and  hair  are  particularly  bad  for 
the  trap;  they  should  never  be  thrown  into  a water  closet  even. 

Therefore  look  often  to  the  traps;  it  is  hard  to  tell  what  they 
may  contain. 

Sometimes  it  may  be  practical  and  desirable  to  connect 
the  waste  pipe  from  the  ice  chest  and  the  overflow  from  the 
attic  tank.  As  it  is  always  best  that  such  pipes  should  be 
trapped,  owing  to  the  possibility  of  invasion  from  insects,  this 
may  be  effected  by  using  some  such  made-up  form  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  64.  In  this  manner  both  pipes  are  sealed  with  the  same  trap,  the  ice  chest 
furnishing  the  water. 

Trees.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  particularly  on  the  Maine  coast, 
the  spruce  tree  seems  to  be  condemned  at  a very  early  age.  Other  trees  in 
other  localities  may  deteriorate  in  like  manner.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  know 


Fig.  64.  Suggestions 
for  a made-up  trap  to  con- 
nect both  tank  overflow  and 
ice-chest  overflow 


328  The  Country  House 

what  to  expect  of  a tree  before  you  rely  too  much  upon  it  as  a feature  of  your 
estate.  If  it  is  not  reasonably  sure  of  lasting  it  is  not  worth  the  trouble. 

Trees,  Dead.  Avery  picturesque  motive  may  sometimes  be  made  by  utilising 
the  roots  of  a dead  tree  which  it  has  been  necessary  to  remove.  Cut  off  the  trunk 
at  the  usual  height  from  the  ground,  and  the  roots  in  a circular  form  about  the 
trunk;  the  whole  may  then  be  tipped  on  edge,  in  the  manner  of  the  old  stump 

fence.  This,  being  somewhat  trimmed 
and  cleaned,  may  be  used  as  a staddle  for 
climbing  plants  with  considerable  effect. 

Trusses.  Trusses  for  heavy  par- 
titions, otherwise  unsupported,  and  for 
roofs  may  be  constructed  in  the  queen  post 
form,  as  shown  in  cut.  (Fig.  65.) 

V ents.  Ceiling  vent  ducts  can  often 
be  concealed  by  means  of  the  cornice,  and 
the  vents  themselves  be  pierced  registers 
in  one  or  more  of  the  ornamental  panels 
occurring  at  intervals  in  the  frieze,  or  by  continuous  perforations  in  the  ornamental 
crown  member  of  the  cornice.  Sometimes  the  centrepiece  is  thus  used. 

There  are  cases  where  the  pilaster  can  be  used  as  a vent  duct.  The  floor  vent  is 
then  pierced  in  the  ornamental  panel  of  the  base,  and  the  ceiling  vent  in  the 
deep  cuttings  of  the  cap.  The  natural  piercings  of  Byzantine  ornament  can  thus 
be  readily  utilised. 

Walls.  It  is  noticeable,  oftentimes,  that  a white  coating  will  often  come  on 
the  outside  of  a brick  wall  after  it  has  been  laid.  This  may  be  removed  by  an 
application  of  dilute  muriatic  acid  and  water,  applied  with  a scrubbing  brush. 

It  is  not  a custom  nor  is  it  the  right  principle  to  make  the  first  story  of  an 
outer  wall  of  brick  and  the  second  of  stone.  These  two  materials  in  combination 
should  be  used  in  t-he  reverse.  In  any  combination  the  material  having  the  effect  of 
greater  heaviness  should  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  wall. 

Well.  The  conditions  of  the  sides  and  bottom  of  an  open  well  may  be 
determined,  on  a bright  day,  by  the  use  of  a mirror;  by  this  means  sunlight  can  be 
reflected  into  its  darkest  corners. 

Often  when  sinking  the  driven  well  the  pipe  is  apt  to  become  clogged  by 
the  penetration  of  soil  through  the  perforations  in  the  shoe.  To  remove  this 
obstruction  a series  of  small  pipes  are  put  together  in  lengths,  lowered  into  the 
well  pipe,  and  a pump  attached  to  the  top.  The  whole  is  then  lifted  slightly,  so 
as  to  be  free  of  the  bottom,  and  water  poured  in  between  the  two  pipes.  Pump- 
ing will  remove  part  of  the  obstruction;  a repetition  of  the  process  will  thoroughly 
clean  the  pipe. 

Windows.  Should  a window  stick,  the  best  way  to  start  it  is  in  the  following 
manner:  Take  a piece  of  soft  pine,  about  8"  long  and  4^  wide,  and  pad  one 

end  of  it  with  several  thicknesses  of  cloth.  Then,  with  the  cloth  end  against  the 
sash  at  the  point  of  sticking,  pound  moderately  with  a mallet  or  hammer.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  go  all  around  the  then  engaged  side  of  the  sash,  but  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  pine  stick  close  to  the  stop  bead  or  stool,  as  the  case 


Fig.  65.  The  application  of  the  queen  post  truss 


Practical  Hints 


329 


may  be,  where  it  will  do  the  most  good  and  be  less  liable  to  break  the  glass. 
If  the  above  method  is  not  effective  it  is  better  to  let  the  sash  dry  out  naturally, 
and  if  the  sticking  be  of  frequent  occurrence  to  have  the  sash  unshipped  and  the 
binding  edges  reduced  slightly  with  a plane. 

There  are  several  stupid  ways  of  putting  on  the  outside  or  “storm”  sash,  the 
worst  of  which  is  to  carry  it  up  a ladder  and  screw  it  on  from  the  outside.  If  you 
don’t  object  to  falling  several  stories  and  wearing  the  sash  for  a ruff,  try  it;  it  is 
solid  and  tight  when  once  in  place,  be  that  on  the  window  or  the  neck.  A better 
and  easier  way  is  to  get  good  stout  screw  eyes  of  a size  which  will  admit  a fair-sized 
screw  through  the  eye  up  to  the  head.  In  the  case  of  an  ordinary  sized  window 
three  on  a side  are  sufficient.  They  should  be  placed  in  the  inner  edge  of  the 
outside  casing,  one  in  the  middle  and  the  other  two  about  4"  or  5"  from  the 
head  and  window  sill  respectively.  A small  but  strong  ring  screw  should  be 
placed  on  the  inside  edge  of  the  window  muntin,  near  the  centre  of  the  window. 
The  ring  of  the  screw  should  be  amply  large  to  allow  the  finger  to  pass  through 
it,  as  it  is  used  to  hold  the  sash  in  place  while  it  is  being  hung.  Holes  should 
be  bored  in  the  sash  to  correspond  to  the  screw  eyes,  so  that  the  screws  will  turn 
into  place  easily.  The  sash  is  then  put  through  from  the  inside  and  the  foot 
brought  to  a bearing  on  the  windowsill;  with  a finger  of  the  left  hand  through 
the  screw  ring  the  window  is  then  brought  into  its  proper  place.  The  screws 
are  then  readily  driven  home  through  the  screw  eyes,  the  two  middle  ones  first, 
thus  holding  it  so  that  both  hands  can  be  used  for  the  placing  of  the  others.  It 
will  readily  be  seen  that  this  method  is  easy  of 
adjustment  by  one  person,  and  that  the  sash  is 
drawn  tightly  against  the  casing. 

Waste.  Do  not  turn  house  waste  into  a blind 
drain,  as  the  stones  are  soon  choked  with  grease  and 
other  matter  which  filter  into  it.  A drain  pipe  should 
be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Water.  Most  water  is  incapable  of  corrosive 
action  on  lead,  owing  to  its  lack  of  absolute  purity. 

Owing  to  the  abundance  of  nitrates  in  well  water 
its  action  on  lead  is  more  active  than  that  of  some 
other  sorts  of  water. 

In  arranging  for  the  piping  of  a house  the  kind 
used  should  be  determined  by  the  effect  that  the 
water  has  upon  it.  This  test  should  be  made  by  a 
competent  expert. 

To  protect  the  lead  pipe  from  corrosion  by  the 
action  of  water,  there  are  several  authorities  who 
suggest  the  introduction  of  dilute  chemical  solution  into  the  pipes  to  form  a pro- 
tecting lining.  One  of  these  uses  sulphite  of  potassium,  in  a solution  of  one 
pound  of  sulphite  to  two  gallons  of  water,  and  allows  it  to  stay  in  the  pipe 
twelve  hours. 

A column  of  water  12"  high  exerts  a downward  pressure  of  .43  pound  to 
the  square  inch.  To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  exerted  by  a 


End  of  a simple  arbour  enclosed  with 
plain  slatting  on  the  sides.  Made  of  ordinary 
height  and  1 5 feet  long,  it  might  be  built  for 
about  $40 


330 


The  Country  H ouse 

column  of  water  of  any  height,  multiply  the  height  in  feet  by  .43.  To  find  the 
head,  multiply  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  by  2.31. 

Water  Pipes.  Often  obstructions  occur  in  the  service  pipe  of  so  slight  a 
nature  that  they  may  be  easily  remedied  by  the  owner.  To  tell  whether  the  service 
pipe  is  leaking  or  partially  clogged,  where  the  water  does  not  flow  as  freely  as  it 
ought,  close  all  the  faucets  except  one  and  place  the  thumb  over  the  opening 
before  turning  on  the  water  at  this  point.  Take  note  at  the  start  how  much 
pressure  is  required  to  keep  the  water  in  the  faucet.  If  the  pipe  is  but  partially 
clogged  the  pressure  will  increase  as  the  pipes  become  full,  and  frequently  the 
pressure  becomes  so  strong  that  the  thumb  cannot  hold  it.  Should  there  be 
a leak  the  pressure  will  remain  practically  the  same.  1 he  presence  of  small  fish 
may  easily  be  detected  by  taste  or  smell. 

To  clear  the  obstruction,  W2ter  should  be  pumped  into  the  service  pipe  by 
means  of  a strong  force  pump.  If  this  be  not  effective,  the  obstruction  is  very 
likely  of  a soft  and  slimy  nature,  and  vibration  must  be  employed  to  loosen  it.  This 
is  effected  by  opening  and  closing  some  stop  cock  on  a line  of  the  public  service 
very  quickly;  in  the  same  manner  open  and  shut  some  other  faucet  in  the  cellar. 
It  is  essential  that  the  water  be  fairly  started  before  it  is  checked.  This  operation, 
repeated  at  short  intervals,  causes  a vibration  in  the  pipe,  which  tends  to  loosen 
the  obstruction. 

When  a leak  occurs  in  the  water  pipe,  shut  off  the  water  at  once.  T his  is  easy 
enough,  but  everyone  in  the  house  should  understand  this,  and  how  to  do  it  in  case 
of  emergency. 

1 he  roaring  sound  from  running  water  in  pipes  is  caused  by  their  being 
secured  to  the  house  frame  in  such  a manner  as  to  vibrate  and  jar  the  entire 
framework,  which  acts  as  a sounding  board.  If  a layer  of  thick  felt  is  laid 
between  the  pipes  and  its  support  this  vibration  will  be  deadened. 

Water  Tower.  A miniature  water  tower  can  be  made  from  a length  of 
ordinary  hose  attached  to  a long  piece  of  1"  x 3"  spruce  scantling.  The  nozzle 
should  be  turned  at  right  angles  to  the  scantling  at  its  top,  and  a shut-off  may  be 
provided  near  the  bottom.  1 his  device  can  be  easily  handled,  and  may  be  of 
considerable  service  in  a locality  where  the  fire  department  is  not  efficient. 


Section  of  an  elliptical  arched  bridge,  showing  stone  construction  on  the 
left  side  and  brick  on  the  right  side 


Mantel  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  designed  by  Wilson  Eyre,  architect 


With  the  idea  of  showing  the  variation  in  cost  of  labour  and  material  in  the  various  parts  of 
the  country,  the  above  design  has  been  estimated  in  several  localities  on  the  same  basis.  It  was 
to  be  of  the  accepted  wood  of  the  locality,  prepared  for  painting:  to  be  a first-class  job,  primed 
one  coat  and  delivered  in  'he  city  where  it  was  made.  The  figures,  while  not  entirely  conclusive 
are  nevertheless  suggestive  and  interesting  : 


New  York  City, 

. . $80 

Seattle,  Wash., 

. $47 

Philadelphia,  . 

. . 75 

Pomona,  Cal., 

26 

Chicago,  . 

55 

Davenport,  Iowa, 

. 39 

Boston, 

84 

Jacksonville,  Fla.,  . 

56 

Bar  Harbor, 

. . 50 

Anniston,  Ga., 

16 

GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


